In everyday morality, "naturalness" is a positively charged term. It plays a significant role wherever technical progress opens up natural processes to human control. This book enquires into the motives for the privileged position of the natural over the artificial and seeks out its roots in the history of ideas.

The hierarchy of conceptual categories involves a level of abstraction called the basic level. This is the level at which the subjects are fastest at identifying category members, at which conceptual priming most easily obtains, at which information is most easily remembered over time, and at which a single mental image can reflect the entire category. Basic-level categories tend to be the first ones acquired by young children, and also tend to be expressed by the simplest words. Various approaches have (...) been developed to deal especially with verbs, which, as the basis of grammatical clauses, are more structured than nouns. Generative semantics explored the idea that the inherent structure of verbs conforms to the syntactic structure of sentences, and therefore should be studied by means of complex paraphrases. (shrink)

Chisholm's two theories of self-consciousness (before and after 1976) are interpreted and evaluated as well motivated, powerful and instructive attempts to avoid circularities while preserving the phenomenon. They are criticised because of correlative shortcomings: The essentialistic theory allows only the formulation and the ascription of self-consciousness in the first person perspective; the second (epistemic) theory is restricted to the ascription of self-consciousness to others. The first theory suffers furthermore from a hidden circularity whereas the second needs an extension that leads (...) into an infinite regress. (shrink)

Popper gives the concept of social situation the role of key term in the method ology of situational analysis. The important characteristics of the social situation are aims and knowledge, which are attributed to the actor and are part of the situation. Furthermore, the elements of the situation create or are, as social institutions, obstacles to the actor. But more complex situations exist which here are called actor specific situations and are much more structured by the actor. The aims and (...) knowledge of the actors vary widely, so they cannot be attributed to the actors without a serious loss of information. The elements have social meanings and meanings which are ascribed to them by the actors. The concept of dual methodology tries to grasp these complex situations for the purpose of empirical research by combining causal explanation of analytical methodology with intentional explanation of a methodology of understanding. The interface between these methodologies is formed by the concept of generative mecha nisms. These are part of the causal theory as well as data gathered for the intentional explanation. The ideal result of research is achieved if the hypothesis cannot be rejected and the two kinds of generative mechanisms coincide. In this case, the hypothesis is a proven causal statement. Finally, the aptitude of the interpretative methodology for gathering the generative mechanisms is dis cussed. (shrink)

David Hume is quoted in Binmore’s book Natural Justice more than any other author, past or present, and throughout with a markedly positive attitude. It is argued that this affinity is reflected in many characteristic features of Binmore’s approach to fairness and social justice and especially in the central role motivational issues are made to play in his theory. It is further argued that Binmore shares with Hume not only important strengths but also certain weaknesses, among them a tendency to (...) derive from the limited evidence of past history far-reaching statements on human nature and the conditions thereby imposed on social morality. (shrink)

ZusammenfassungDer schnelle Fortschritt der Biomedizin fördert fortwährend neue bioethische Problemstellungen zutage und erfordert Anpassungen überlieferter Normbestände an neue Gegebenheiten. Für viele neue Verfahren stellen sich jedoch Fragen nicht nur der moralischen Bewertung, sondern auch der begrifflichen Einordnung. Diese besagt dann häufig etwas über das Gewicht, das einerseits sachlichen, andererseits normativen Kontinuitäten und Diskontinuitäten beigelegt wird. Der Beitrag illustriert die in diesem Zusammenhang auftretenden Konflikte am Beispiel des Gene editing bei Nutzpflanzen, der mitochondrial replacement therapy, des aktiven Behandlungsabbruchs bei Schwerkranken und (...) dem freiwilligen Verzicht auf Nahrung und Flüssigkeit zur Lebensbeendigung (Sterbefasten). Besonderes Augenmerk gilt den Dilemmata, die sich ergeben, wenn sich diese Konflikte angesichts verhärteter normativer Fronten diskursiv nicht auflösen lassen. (shrink)

The contribution argues that causal interpretations of empirical correlations between neural and conscious events are meaningful even if not fully verifiable and that there are reasons in favour of an epiphenomenalist construction of psychophysical causality. It is suggested that an account of causality can be given that makes interactionism, epiphenomenalism and Leibnizian parallelism semantically distinct interpretations of the phenomena. Though neuroscience cannot strictly prove or rule out any one of these interpretations it can be argued that methodological principles favour a (...) causal interpretation on epiphenomenalist lines, both for reasons of metaphysical parsimony and for reasons of coherence with established physical principles such as the conservation of energy. In the concluding chapter, some of the philosophical and the empirical challenges following from this model are outlined, the most important being closer scrutiny of the neurophysiological processes accompanying conscious volition. (shrink)

It is evident that the problem of global climate change is closely bound up with questions of distributional justice, both intra- and intergenerational. Questions of justice are raised by two kinds of burdens: reductions in the emission of greenhouse gases, and the financial and knowledge transfers necessary to enable the poorest countries to compensate the harms suffered by the ongoing process. Both burdens involve considerable costs and opportunity costs. On the backdrop of a prioritarian version of utilitarianism, it is argued (...) that the answer should be a split strategy. While reduction of emissions should be based on the polluter-pays principle, obligations of compensation should be based on the criteria of overall economic strength. (shrink)

Whereas traditional ethical discussions of suicide have primarily dealt with questions relating to the moral rightness or wrongness of suicidal acts, the problem of which moral criteria should govern acts of preventing, admitting and aiding suicide has rarely been discussed systematically. In the present paper it is argued that suicide is morally neutral in all cases in which it does not constitute grave damage, material or psychological, to others, that this does not imply that non-prevention, in the same range of (...) cases, is morally neutral as well. Moral criteria for suicide prevention are formulated by making use of the Rawlsian device of a fictitious “veil of ignorance” behind which moral rules are decided on from merely self-regarding motives. It is argued that decision behind the veil would be of a principle of “restricted paternalism” that minimizes both the risk of not being prevented from committing suicide in cases in which this is clearly irrational in view of the enduring preferences of the suicidal person himself, as well as the complementary risk of being subjected to compulsory detention or treatment in cases in which suicide is the option conforming most, on a realistic view of the case, to the enduring preferences of the person. The practical rules translating the principle into concrete practice comprise a rule demanding compulsory prevention of all imminent suicides by persons not intimately known to the potential preventer, a prohibition of pre-emptive compulsory measures, and a general temporal limitation on detention. Finally, a similar, if more tentative, derivation of practical rules is attempted for cases in which aiding a suicide might seem to another person to be in the best interest of the suicidal person concerned. (shrink)

The author discusses some ethical problems connected with taking human organs for transplantation from living and dead people. First of all, he asks whether being an organ giver should be taken as our moral duty. It seems to be the duty of heart in Kantian terms. Various possibilities in the legal regulation of taking organs are considered here as well as the criteria and forms of their distribution. None of them, however, can be satisfying because of the inescapable conflict between (...) the principle of utility and that of autonomy. (shrink)

Biozentrische Postulate eines intrinsischen Wert des Lebendigen können nicht nur metaethisch unterschiedlich eingebettet sein, sie lassen sich auch unterschiedlich begründen und akzentuieren. Der Beitrag untersucht die Tragfähigkeit des Versuchs, den intrinsischen Wert des Lebendigen auf dessen Würde zurückzuführen, eine Konzeption, die u. a. bei der Einführung des Begriffs "Würde der Kreatur" in die Schweizerische Bundesverfassung in den frühen 1990er Jahren leitend gewesen ist. Es werden drei unterschiedlich anspruchsvolle Konzeptionen einer "Würde des Lebendigen" unterschieden sowie drei unterschiedlich anspruchsvolle normative Ausgestaltungen und (...) gezeigt, dass selbst noch die jeweils schwächsten Formen mit schwerwiegenden Begründungsproblemen konfrontiert sind. (shrink)

Die Kernenergie ist nach wie vor eine der am heftigsten umstrittenen Techniken der Energieerzeugung. Obwohl den Kontroversen um sie implizit ethische – vor allem risikoethische – Annahmen zugrunde liegen, ist sie vergleichsweise selten zum Gegenstand technikethischer Überlegungen gemacht worden. Ein möglicher Grund dafür ist u. a. in der weitgehenden Ungeklärtheit vieler grundlegender Fragen der Risikoethik zu suchen, aber auch in den zahlreichen noch offenen technischen Fragen, etwa im Zusammenhang mit der Endlagerung der aus der Nutzung der Kernenergie resultierenden radioaktiven Rückstände.

InNaturNatürlichkeitseinerKünstlichkeitKritik der Urteilskraft zitiert Kant das Beispiel eines Gastwirts, der seinen Burschen im Wirtsgarten den Gesang der Nachtigall nachahmen lässt, um damit seine bei ihm eingekehrten Gäste zu erfreuen: Dieser „lustige Wirth“ habe „seine zum Genuß der Landluft bei ihm eingekehrten Gäste dadurch zu ihrer größten Zufriedenheit hintergangen […], daß er einen mutwilligen Burschen, welcher diesen Schlag (mit Schilf oder Rohr im Munde) ganz der NaturNatur ähnlich nachzumachen wußte, in einem Gebüsche verbarg. Sobald man aber inne wird, daß es Betrug (...) sei, so wird niemand es lange aushalten, diesem vorher für so reizend gehaltenen Gesange zuzuhören; und so ist es mit jedem anderen Singvogel beschaffen. Es muß Natur sein, oder von uns dafür gehalten werden, damit wir an dem Schönen als einem solchen ein unmittelbares Interesse nehmen können.“. (shrink)