Waqf system is a judical and financial institution of social security as well as the institutions which conduct educational, cultural, religious, public works, social aid and health investments. The waqf founders lined the services idealized by them in their deeds of trustee. It is aimed that these services countinue forever. This process survived for centuries primarily stemmed from this legal infrastructure, financial resources and efficient inspecting recording order. The accountancy culture which is on the basis of auditing and proper for (...) information characteristics of the accountancy within the Ottoman financial tradition may be read from the accountancy books kept in the awqaf. From another point of view that the waqf culture had survived for centuries primarily stemmed from this efficient, inspecting record order. (shrink)

This paper deals with the role and task of intellectual groups in current Muslim societies, with a particular outlook on Algeria. It discusses the social and educational impact of their action, and the internal and external limits to their action. Democratization and Arabization are considered as two dialectical poles of the ongoing process of modernization of those societies.

We often hear the term “dignity” in our age. Especially in societies with multicultural and multi-faith, peace, respect, tolerance and human rights ideas are associated with human precious beings. However, understanding what dignity is and which rights it includes are difficult. Because human dignity has social, philosophical, theological and legal dimensions in which its content changes in historical process. Dignity is a term discussed in western societies and has a place in international contexts. That’s why the emphasis is on its (...) naming in western thought and conceptualization types. The definitions of term in terms of legal, moral and cultural are analyzed. This analysis shows it is described as classical and modern with different meanings. It is thought that perceiving the term as classical far from modern meaning results from monotheistic religions. But it is also expected that these religions contribute to social peace. Therefore, in order to understand the monotheistic religions’ attitude towards human and human rights, Holy Scriptures should be reviewed. Analyzing the dignity in Holy Scriptures is out of our studies. Our purpose is to discuss how Islamic attitude towards this term should be in accordance with understanding types of the term. (shrink)

Ikhtisâr refers to the process of compilation a work by summarizing short and concise information or a large volume of work through abbreviation. It is intended to facilitate reading, learning and memorization, or to eliminate difficult parts in a book written in the form of Ikhtisâr. The compilation of concise works that fulfilled their purpose has become widespread over time and transformed into a tradition and also concise works have been compiled in fiqh as in other disciplines of sciences. In (...) particular, the work entitled Ghayâ fi’l-Ikhtisâr by Abu Shudjâ al-Isfahânî (d. after 500/1107), which is one of the concise works written in the Shafi'î madhhab, constitutes an important part of this tradition. In this study, primarily, the concise works written in the field of usûl/ancestor and furû/descendant in the Shafi’î madhhab were identified and given in chronological order, right after that, Ghayâ fi’l-Ikhtisâr and Ahmad bin Omar al-Shatirî’s (d. 1360/1941) work entitled Al-Yaqut al-Nafis were examined in terms of the ikhtisâr method. The comparative method was employed in order to determine the common and different aspects of these two works, which are among the basic sources of the Shafi'î madhhab, in terms of content and method. In this context, primarily, basic information regarding Ghayâ fi’l-Ikhtisâr and Al-Yaqut al-Nafis was presented, and right after that the classificcations and information in both works were compared and evaluated in terms of style. In this respect, it was determined that some of the topics in one of the aforementioned works are not included in the other work, and that there are certain differences between them in terms of the arrangement of the topics and the way they are explained. Based on this, in Ghayâ fi’l-Ikhtisâr the topics are dealt with in a brief manner and jurisprudential rulings are presented without giving much space to their evidences. In Al-Yaqut al-Nafis, on the other hand, each topic is dealt with in a detailed manner, and the elements, conditions and provisions related to the topics are mentioned as sub-headings. In particular, issues related to fiqh other than worship are explained with examples. Nevertheless, as in Ghayâ fi’l-Ikhtisâr the evidences of fiqh provisions are not included much. The topics in both works are arranged according to the Shafi'î fiqh methodology. (shrink)

Sadr al-Sharīʿah (d. 747/1346) is one of the theologians representing the later period of the Māturīdī kalām. He based his system of thought on his criticisms of Avicenna, al-Rāzī, and Ṭūsī. His criticism of these names stems from his own understanding of being. He thinks differently from the theologians of the later period on issues such as the essence-existence division, the superaddition of existence to essence, and the acceptance of mental being, which are accepted by the majority of theologians of (...) the later period. His understanding of being in question also influenced his analysis of the idea of the wahdat al-wujūd. In the study, some aspects of the framework proposed by Muhammed Bedirhan will be given first. Then, in order to make sense of Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s criticism of wahdat al-wujūd, the major understandings of wahdat al-wujūd will be summarized briefly, and finally, Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s analysis of wahdat al-wujūd will be examined and clarified using Bedirhan’s framework. Although the framework has subheadings, it classifies criticisms into two categories: rationally-based and sharʻī-based objections. Rational objections are directed from the traditions of kalām and philosophy, while sharʻī-based objections come from Salafi thinkers, faqihs, and sufis. The framework is comprehensive in classifying criticisms against the theory of wahdat al-wujūd. This framework will clarify Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s approach, and the source of his criticisms should be identified. According to Bedirhan, the sufis’ theory is in conflict with the members of other schools in two aspects, practical and theoretical. While the first one considers sufism a religious state (ḥal), the second one is the point that shapes the view of other intellectual groups on sufism in terms of the fact that sufism is also a science. Bedirhan has based the theoretical conflict part of his framework on the triple classification of al-Jābiri: burhān, beyān and irfān. According to al-Jābiri’s classification, sufism, which is included under the title of irfān, deals with the previous two traditions mentioned. However, burhan and beyan traditions also offer their criticisms of the epistemological and ontological acceptances of the irfān tradition. Behind the criticism of the traditions of thought towards each other is the claim that the metaphysical theory of the opposite group is insufficient. According to the presented framework Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s criticisms can be considered within not only the kalām tradition but also the sufi tradition, because he is a sufi who accepts ittihād as one of the “sayr sulūk” degrees. Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s explains two proofs by which sufis defend their metaphysical theory, and also presents a counter-proof based on the verbal commonality of sense knowledge and being. He also aims to point out the weakness of the metaphysical theory of sufis with the view that the idea of ittihād is unique to a certain degree. By mentioning Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s criticisms and explanations of wahdat al- wujūd, the study identifies Sadr al-Sharīʿah’s stance on the rational and sharʻī-based objections. (shrink)

Ibn Kammūna (d. 1284) is one of the prominent names to have presented the new structuring that emerged after the classical period studies of Islamic philosophy following the 12th century. This article deals with his theory of the body, previously undiscussed in the academic community. The subject has been handled in connection with the philosophy of nature and metaphysics concerning questions such as how the body exists as a possible essence and how the principles guiding this process are reflected in (...) the field of nature, as well as what the body is and what its constituent elements, types, qualities, and additions are. Thus, Ibn Kammūna has been determined to consider the first body to be the first sphere, the later bodies to occur in the process of emanation, and the cause of the body to be the intellect. In addition, he established the body consisting of matter and form to be continuous, to point to itself, and to be an infinitely divisible substance. However, he is observed to have not evaluated matter and form, which are constituent elements of the body, under the category of substance. Moreover, this article also reviews Ibn Kammūna’s approach to the main claims of the Peripatetic and Illuminationist traditions about the body contained in his original works and commentaries. Through the proofs and reasoning made in the details of these claims, Ibn Kammūna is understood to have thought mostly in line with Ibn Sīnā about the definition and essence of the body. He occasionally agreed with Suhrawardī about the properties and additions of the body. This study investigates how Ibn Kammūna shaped Ibn Sīnā’s theory of the body, upon which Suhrawardī had expanded, and whether its content is original in this context. Thus, I aim to contribute to the field by following the processes of change, expansion, and transfer of philosophical accumulation in Islamic thought after these two philosophers who had founded of the Peripatetic and Illuminationist schools. (shrink)

Ateizmin gerekçelendirilmesi gereken bir tutum olup olmadığı ve hangi koşulların sağlanması durumunda rasyonel bir gerekçelendirmeden bahsedilebileceği sorunu, en az teizmin gerekçelendirilmesi sorunu kadar önemlidir. Bu makalede ateizmin inançsızlık veya Tanrı inancının bulunmaması şeklinde negatif yolla tanımlanması durumunda nasıl bir gerekçelendirmenin öngörüldüğü ele alınmaktadır. Ateizm, inançsızlık olarak ele alınırsa, bu durum onun gerekçelendirmeden muaf olduğu sonucuna götürebilir mi? Ateistin “Tanrı vardır” önermesinin yanlış, “Tanrı yoktur” önermesinin doğru olduğunu gösterme amaçlı bir ispat yükümlülüğü bulunmamakta mıdır? Ateistik gerekçelendirme söz konusu olduğunda karşımıza delilin (...) yokluğu yaklaşımı ve yokluğun delili yaklaşımı olmak üzere iki farklı seçenek çıkar. Bu makalenin konusu olan delilin yokluğu yaklaşımının değerlendirilebilmesi için öncelikle “Tanrı vardır” önermesinin doğruluğuna dair yeterli delil bulunmaması durumunda bu önermenin inkârının zorunlu olup olamayacağı ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra ise yeterli delil bulunmaması durumunun negatif ateizmden pozitif ateizme geçişi meşru kılıp kılamayacağı irdelenmiştir. Makalede ateizmin gerekçelendirilebilmesinin, delilin yokluğunun yokluğun delili için yeterli görüldüğü bir savunmadan ziyade pozitif deliller ile mümkün olabileceği savunulmaktadır. Ateizm, önermesel bir tutumdan ziyade bir tür psikolojik inançsızlık hâli olarak değerlendirilirse bu durum, onun epistemik boyutunun göz ardı edilmesine neden olacaktır. Bu çalışmada ateizmin Tanrı’nın varlığına dair inançsızlık veya bir tür kayıtsızlık hâli olarak görülmesinin imkânı irdelenmekte ve bu durumun ateistik savunuya bir katkı sağlayamayacağının gösterilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Delilci bir bakış açısından herhangi bir delil sunmadan ateizmin doğru olduğu sonucuna ulaşılması, kendi kendisine referansla tutarsız görünmektedir. (shrink)

The aim of the present study is to evaluate Sonja Foss’s Rhetorical Schema for the Evaluation of Visual Imagery as well as reflect upon several points for further consideration; and finally suggest a renewed triadic approach as a method for analyzing art-relevant visual imagery. The triadic approach to be discussed assumes three correlative layers: the intellectual knowledge, function of the artistic content as the visual representational component, and aesthetics as modality. This study will include the analysis of a print advertisement (...) that used an artwork as its content of visual rhetoric, and this will inform further discussions on the proposed approach. The contribution of this renewed triadic approached to the field of visual rhetoric has the advantage of expanding and possibly improving rhetorical analysis methods of visual imagery. (shrink)

The problem of evil and theodicy is one of the most important subjects in the field of Philosophy of Religion. The problem of evil is basically understood as the problem of incompatibility of the existence of God with evil. While the problem of evil is used to justify atheistic claims, theodicy has been developed to strengthen theistic claims. Mawlânâ D̲j̲alāl al-Dīn Rūmī (1207-1273), who is the important sufi thinker of Turkish-Islamic culture, is generally known for his mystical and literary works. (...) Although Mawlânâ 's philosophical views have not been studied sufficiently, it is seen that he presents his important ideas in the philosophical field, especially in the philosophy of religion, in a non-systematic and hidden way in his works. In this study, the problem of evil has been studied in the case of Mawlânâ, within the scope of the evil’s types and the problem of evil’s types in the literature. In addition, it has been examined whether Mawlânâ discussed the evil as a philosophical problem and contributed to the solution of the problem of evil. Then, one of the theodicy used by Mawlânâ, which is related to contrasts, has been called the theodicy of contrasts and has been explained and systematized. It is known that theodicy related to theme of contrast was developed before Mawlânâ. As a result, Although it cannot be said that Mevlânâ made an original contribution to the problem of evil with his theodicy of contrasts in terms of content, it can be said that he approached originally to this problem in terms of his metaphorical manner and expression style. (shrink)

Stark variations exist in U.S. immigration enforcement. These variations have persisted even during the COVID-19 pandemic, when special measures that should have constrained variations were in place. This Article argues that variations in discretionary enforcement decisions based on resistance to national policies, bias, illegal tactics, or arbitrariness are unjust and should be curtailed. The Article first distinguishes between transparent sources of variation in immigration law and variations that stem from non-transparent, discretionary determinations. Within the category of discretionary determinations, the Article (...) argues that there are just and unjust variations. It contends that unjust variations raise serious constitutional concerns, weaken preemption doctrine, and require us to reconceptualize the immigration federalism debate to account for cooperative and uncooperative behavior within the federal government itself. Finally, the Article offers solutions to help limit unjust variations. (shrink)

In this study, we will analyze the three major theories concerning the relationship between God and the universe: origination (ḥudūth), emanation (ṣudūr), manifestation (ẓuhūr or tajallī). The theory of origination was developed in the history of Kalam. The majority of the theologians (Mutakallimūn) aimed to offer a concept of God and His relation to the universe based on the origination theory. On the other hand, the Muslim philosophers, mostly Ibn Sīnā, suggested the theory of emanation to provide a causal explanation (...) of the universe as well as God’s relation to it. The theory of manifestation emerged in the philosophical Sufism. Ibn ‘Arabī posited the concept of manifestation as an explanation of God’s connection with the universe. Based on their cosmological views, each field also aimed to offer their proof of God’s existence. The theologians argued that the universe was temporally originated (muḥdath) and therefore necessitates an originator (muḥdith) upon their premise that everything originated needs an originator. On the other hand, the philosophers attempted to address the premise of "from one comes only one" explaining how the multiplicity comes from the Absolute One (God). Considering God as the ultimate source of existence, they proposed a hierarchical order in the universe and explained it through their theory of emanation. The Sufi thinkers explained the relationship with the theory of manifestation, which is also known as the appearance of the Absolute Being or the revealing of the Absolute Being. In this study, we will primarily focus on these three theories and examine their differences and similarities as well as their significance in the formation of the cosmic existence in the Islamic thought. (shrink)

There is a prevailing opinion in the literature that the first name to mention the interpretation of the Qur'an with the Qur'an as a method is Ibn Taymiyya. He puts it at the forefront in the hierarchy of evidence in his Muqaddima. However, Abu Bakr Ibnu'l-Arabi, who lived two centuries before Ibn Taymiyya, also refers to the same method in the first place among the tafsir methods he suggested. Based on this finding, in the article, after briefly mentioning the aforementioned (...) tafsir method, a brief information about Ibn al-Arabi's Qânûn al-Ta'wîl is given and his approach to this method is examined. Within the scope of this subject, the common and different aspects of both authors' methods of interpreting the Qur'an with the Qur'an are presented. In addition, the findings regarding the problems arising from the authors' putting this method in the first place are shared. Finally, the possible reasons why both authors put this method in the first place are discussed. The aim of the study in this background is to reveal that there was another scholar mentioning the method in the first place before Ibn Taymiyya among the exegetical methods in the classical period and to perform an analysis within this framework. By the application of "data and content analysis", the content in Ibn al-Arabi's Qânûn al-Ta'wîl and Ibn Taymiyya's Muqaddimah in the context of the Qur'an's interpretation with the Qur'an has been analyzed. This content has been subjected to comparative analysis in terms of commonality and differences. (shrink)

Şüphesiz düşünce dünyasına adım atma cesaretini gösteren insanı meşgul eden sorulardan biri de kendisinin nasıl bir varlık olduğudur. Varlığını keşfetme sürecinde felsefe, antropoloji, psikoloji ve biyoloji gibi bilimlerin insana ilişkin ortaya koymuş oldukları anlayışlar yol gösterici olsa da insanın özünü keşfetme noktasında yetersiz gelebilir. Zira gelişen ve değişen bir varlık olarak insan yaşadığı toplum, kültür ve tarihsel arka planından tecrit edilerek bir tanıma hapsedilmesi varlığının keşfedilmesi yönündeki en büyük engeldir. Benzer bir düşünceden hareketle Heidegger insanın özünü animal rationale olarak belirleyen (...) metafiziksel anlayışı insanın aslına ulaşamadığı gerekçesiyle eleştirmektedir. Hatta Heidegger’e göre bu anlayışla insan özünü kavrayamadığı gibi kendi özünden de uzaklaşmıştır. Modern öznenin temellerini atan bu anlayış insanın her şeyi nesneleştirmesi ve kendisini yeryüzünün efendisi gibi görmesine neden olmuştur. Oysa gerçekte insanın göz kamaştıran gücünün sınırsız genişlemesine aracılık eden teknoloji Heidegger’e göre büyük bir tehlikedir. Çünkü insan kendisini her şeye hâkim olarak tecrübe ettikçe teknolojinin egemenliği altına girdiğini fark etmeksizin özünden uzaklaşıp kaynağa dönüşmektedir. Buradan hareketle Heidegger Hölderlin’in “Ama tehlikenin olduğu yerde, kurtarıcı da büyür” dizesi ile teknolojinin en büyük tehlikenin kaynağı düşünme ve şiirin ise kurtarıcı olduğunu ifade eder. Ancak teknolojinin tehlike olarak mı kalacağı yoksa yerini kurtarıcıya mı bırakacağı insanın teknoloji ile kuracağı ilişkiye bağlıdır. (shrink)

On December 7,1999, a divided Oklahoma Supreme Court held in Nealis v. Baird that a claim may be brought under Oklahoma's wrongful death statute on behalf of a nonviable fetus born alive. The decision represents a departure from the traditional notion that “viability”—the ability of a fetus to sustain life outside the womb with or without medical assistance—is the standard for wrongful death recovery. In replacing the “viability” standard with a “live birth” standard, the majority maintained that live birth is (...) the “unassailable point at which legal rights must be said to attach to the human person. “ By holding a nonviable fetus a legal “person” for the purpose of a wrongful death claim, the court's decision emphasizes the limited application of the United States Supreme Court's holding in Roe v. Wade that a fetus is not a person for the purposes of the Fourteenth Amendment. (shrink)

Bu makale, Fahreddin er-Râzî’nin (ö. 606/1210) mantık sisteminde yer alan bitişik ve ayrık şartlı önermelerin doğruluk kriterlerinin ne olduğu ve bu önermelerin doğruluk işlevli (truth functional) olup olmadıkları sorularını ele almaktadır. Bu doğrultuda çalışma iki ana bölüm olarak kurgulanmıştır. Birinci bölümde mesele, lüzûmî ve rastlantısal (ittifâkî) bitişik şartlı önermeler, ikinci bölümde ise ayrık şartlı önermelerin üç türü bağlamında tartışılmıştır. Bu tartışma neticesinde lüzûmî bitişik şartlı önermelerin doğruluğunun, bileşenlerinin doğruluk değerlerinin yanı sıra bu önermelerin içermeleri gereken lüzûm ilişkisine sahip olmalarına; ayrık (...) şartlı önermelerin doğruluğunun ise bileşenlerinin doğruluk değerlerinin yanı sıra ifade etmeleri beklenen ayrıklık ilişkisini ifade ediyor olmalarına bağlı olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. Bunun sonucu olarak, Râzî’nin sistemindeki lüzûmî bitişik şartlı ve ayrık şartlı önermelerin doğruluk işlevli olmadığı ve bu önermelerin, önermeler mantığındaki doğruluk işlevli bileşik önermelerle anlam açısından örtüşmediği belirlenmiştir. Rastlantısal bitişik şartlı önermeler ise bileşenleri arasında gerektirme veya ayrıklık ilişkisi bulunmaması nedeniyle doğruluk işlevli olarak değerlendirilmiştir. (shrink)

It is known that there are different concentrations of Muslims in European countries. However, Germany has a special importance in these countries due to the numerical excess of Muslims and the existence of our compatriots due to the economic migration from Turkey to Germany that started in the 1960s. For this reason, in our article, the educational activity carried out on Islamic theology, in particular kalam, in the example of Germany will be discussed. In Germany, Islamic religious education departments were (...) opened in three different universities to train teachers to teach Islamic religion in primary, secondary and high school schools, and to provide Imam education in order to eliminate the language and adaptation problems experienced by mosque officials coming from abroad. The process that started with Osnabrück University, Westfälische Wilhelm Münster University and Friedrich-Alexander University has progressed beyond the initial aim of training Islamic religion teachers with the seven universities reached today. In addition to the influence of the German Islamic Conference on the formation of the theoretical infrastructure of this process, the impact of the 2010 recommendation of the Scientific Committee is also known. The originality, scientific impartiality and conformity of Islamic Theology in Germany are the issues that are emphasized in the discussions. As a matter of fact, for this reason, the discussion of the science of of kalām in these centers is of particular importance in the debates. Because kalām is a science that shapes the understanding of religion and offers the opportunity to develop a correct intellectual perspective on religion. It is possible to say that the content of kalām in these centers and the studies carried out will affect the understanding of Islam that will emerge in Europe, especially in Germany, in the next century. For this reason, in our article, the study areas of theology professors in seven Islamic Theology centers and theses which they supervise will be discussed, on the other hand, researches, projects and collaborations that reflect the intellectual perspective of the Islamic Theology center will be highlighted. This article aims not only to criticize the said centers in Germany, but also to determine what kind of mutual contributions they might have with the theological accumulation in Turkey. As a matter of fact, it is obvious that the courses given, the theses managed and the fields of study will shape the future of Islamic theology in Europe, as well as having an impact on Islamic theology in Turkey given that today global scientific interaction is at the highest level. It is not possible to think the issues currently studied in Islamic Theology in Germany independently of the realities and needs of the country in which they flourish. As a matter of fact, although there are historical studies on Islamic theology schools, especially Maturidism, Ash'arism and Mu'taziliism, in different universities, the existence of studies on subjects that can be called “practical theology” draws attention. In addition, due to the fact that Germany creates a multi-religious and multicultural environment, it is seen that a supra-denominational approach is adopted and thus it is aimed to ensure a pluralism that allows different views. (shrink)

Belli açılardan, biri klasik diğeri modern felsefenin öncüsü olarak kabul edilen Platon ve Descartes birbirilerinden yalnızca çağları bakımından değil; ruh, beden ve töz anlayışları bakımından da farklılık gösterir. Bununla birlikte, hakikati ararken temel aldıkları modus operandi (çalışma şekli, yöntem) bakımından ise oldukça yakın anlayışlara sahip oldukları iddia edilebilir. Platon psykhe’nin varlığa açılma zeminini ortaya koyarken, Descartes ise ben-Tanrı-uzamlı cisimler anlayışını temellendirirken epistemolojiyi merkeze almıştır. Bu bağlamda, varlığa farklı derecelerde epistemolojik bir karakter kazandırmaları bakımından filozofların karşılaştırılabileceğini söylemek mümkün olabilir. Bu açıdan (...) bu çalışma Batı Felsefesi tarihinde önemli değişimler yaratan Platon ve Descartes’ın ontoloji ile epistemoloji arasında kurdukları farklı ve benzer ilişkileri ve epistemolojik çözümlemelerini konu edinmektedir. (shrink)

Bu araştırmanın konusu, Ernest Harms’ın dini gelişim teorisini Tanrı tasavvuru kuramları bağlamında ele almaktır. Bu doğrultuda araştırmada, dini gelişimde Tanrı tasavvurunun önemini Harms’ın çalışması çerçevesinde incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada bilimsel araştırma yöntemlerinden doküman analizi yöntemi uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada Harms’ın hayatı, çalışmaları ve dine bakış açısı açıklanarak değerlendirmelerde bulunulmuştur. Araştırma sonucuna göre dini gelişim teorileri arasında yer alan Harms’ın teorisi Tanrı tasavvuru bağlamında çizim yöntemiyle ele alınan orijinal çalışmalar arasında yer almaktadır. Bununla birlikte Harms, pek çok alanda eser vermekle birlikte bu teoriyi ileri (...) bir düzeyde ele almamıştır. Teorinin, çoğu dini gelişim teorileri gibi Piaget’în dini gelişim teorisi üzerine kurulu olması açısından sınırlı kaldığı söylenebilir. Tanrı tasavvuru ile ilgili araştırmaların ise Harms’ın çalışması da dâhil olmak üzere belirli din veya mezhebe mensup gruplar arasında yapıldığı; Türkiye’de kuramsal açıdan yeterli çalışma olmadığı görülmüştür. Bu nedenle Tanrı tasavvurunun dini ve kültürel açıdan değişkenlik arz etmesi göz önüne alınarak yeni kuramların geliştirilmesi alana katkı sağlayabilir. (shrink)

Name der Zeitschrift: Byzantinische Zeitschrift Jahrgang: 107 Heft: 2 Seiten: 785-810.