This is an edition of one of the crucial texts of Renaissance skepticism, Quod nihil scitur, by the Portuguese scholar Franciso Sanches. The treatise, first published in 1581, is a refutation of Aaristotelian dialectics and scientific theory in the search for a true scientific method. This volume provides a critical edition of the original text, an English translation (the first ever published), a substantial introduction, and comprehensive annotation.

Realçam-se aqui como príncipais traços identificadores das ditas obras "filosóficas" de Francisco Sanches, o facto de elas, em vez de se tratarem simplesmente de escritos de um filósofo que também era médico, constituírem textos em que a preocupação com a ciência da medicina ou a matérìa médica exerce uma função prìmordial e essencial, e aqueloutro de nessas obras se observar o tratamento conjunto e conjugado dos temas do juízo e da incerteza. É este tratamento em particular seguido no itinerárío (...) que cumpre na prìncipal obra filosófica de Sanches, o Quod Nihil Scitur. The aim of this article is to study the interplay of the notions of judgement and incertitude in the main philosophical text by the 16th Century Portuguese philosopher and physician Francisco Sanches, Quod Nihil Scitur. There we see that the developments that interplay of the two notions gives use to form an essential part of a moderate skeptical philosophy. (shrink)

The most popular work of Francisco Sánchez, Quo nihil scitur (1581), transmits an absolutely sceptic thought. However, other writings like Carmen de Cometa anni M.D.LXXVII (1578), offer us different ideas about how Sánchez considers possible the scientific knowledge like, for example, his idea about the casual relations between natural objects.

La obra más popular de Francisco Sánchez, Quod nihil scitur (1581), transmite un pensamiento completamente escéptico. No obstante, otros escritos como Carmen de Corneta anni MDLXXVII (1578), nos ofrecen diversas ideas de cómo consideraba Sánchez que era posible el conocimiento científico como, por ejemplo, su pensamiento sobre las relaciones causales entre objetos naturales.

The most popular work of Francisco Sánchez, Quo nihil scitur (1581), transmits an absolutely sceptic thought. However, other writings like Carmen de Cometa anni M.D.LXXVII (1578), offer us different ideas about how Sánchez considers possible the scientific knowledge like, for example, his idea about the casual relations between natural objects.

No single text could be considered more important in the history of philosophy than Descartes' Meditations. This unique collection of background material to this magisterial philosophical text has been translated from the original French and Latin. The texts gathered here illustrate the kinds of principles, assumptions, and philosophical methods that were commonplace when Descartes was growing up. The selections are from: Francisco Sanches, Christopher Clavius, Pierre de la Ramee, Francisco Suárez, Pierre Charron, Eustachius a Sancto Paulo, Scipion Dupleix, (...) Marin Mersenne, Pierre Gassendi, Jean de Silhon, François de la Mothe le Vayer, Charles Sorel, and Jean-Baptiste Morin. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Descartes’ Meditations: Background Source Materials ed. by Roger Ariew, John Cottingham, and Tom SorellRichard A. WatsonRoger Ariew, John Cottingham, and Tom Sorell, editors. Descartes’ Meditations: Background Source Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Pp. xviii + 170. Cloth, $54.95. Paper, $18.95.This volume includes primarily source materials from authors who were contemporary to Descartes’s composition of the Meditations. Thus there are no selections from Augustine, Aquinas, and Montaigne, for (...) example, who were more influential on the Meditations than some of the authors excerpted. Of course their influence is already amply documented by such scholars as Gilson and Gouhier. Probably the most important source included is Suárez, whose role is championed by Jean-Luc Marion in several works. Readers should look for the forthcoming Index Augustino-Cartèsian: Textes et Commentaire by Zbigniew Janowski (Paris: J. Vrin) for a startling challenge to the view that Descartes is Suárezian.In the volume under review, Eustachius a Sancto Paulo is of special interest because Descartes thought of refuting him item by item (but decided exposition of his own view would be adequate). In his youth Descartes had a definite interest in Petrus Ramus, although Beeckman told him his method consisted of tired old tricks. Francisco Sanches and Pierre Charron are important for their expositions of sceptical arguments and attitudes. Christopher Clavius is Descartes’s direct predecessor in mathematical analysis, and none of Descartes’s protests that he never read the man has convinced anyone. Scipion Dupleix is a fine example of how the Old Philosophy appeared to the New Philosophers, and Marin Mersenne, of course, compiled material on every subject Descartes ever had an interest in. Pierre Gassendi exercised Descartes’s ire more than any other commentator on the Meditations, and Descartes again probably read Gassendi’s continuing criticisms even though he claimed he wouldn’t. [End Page 366]Of special interest is Jean de Silhon, an old friend of Descartes’s who published a book containing a proto-cogito three years before the Meditations appeared. François de la Mothe le Vayer represents the libertine strain many detect in Descartes’s writings, while Jean-Baptiste Morin provides fodder for those who detect Descartes’s piety, although Descartes asserts that the man is an idiot for defending the immobility of the earth. Finally, Charles Sorel provides an example of the deductive mode of exposition in a text that shows that the notion of a unified science was more than Cartesian. One contemporary who was left out and should have been included was the Augustinian Guillaume Gibieuf.But overall, this is an interesting and useful collection of works Descartes doubtless knew. [End Page 367]Richard A. WatsonWashington UniversityCopyright © 1999 Johns Hopkins University Press... (shrink)

A relação originária entre técnica moderna e ciências da natureza é um tema constante na produção filosófica tardia de Martin Heidegger. Para o filósofo alemão, esses fenômenos não se resumem a meras produções de conhecimento subordinadas à razão e vontade humanas, derivadas de processos históricos transitórios, produtos de erros e acertos de personagens históricas “geniais” amparadas por casualidades fortuitas. Técnica e ciência compõem, na verdade, fenômenos constitutivos que definem a Era Moderna, ditando ao homem contemporâneo o que pensar e como (...) agir, desde um fundamento comum. Nesse sentido, a nossa meditação atenderá à provocação do seguinte problema de pesquisa: em que consiste o fundamento comum desde o qual imperam ciência e técnica, caracterizando essencialmente a Era Moderna e determinando o modo de ser do homem contemporâneo? Atendendo a essa provocação, evidenciaremos que técnica e ciência moderna constituem modos de desencobrir e de explorar o real como fonte de utilidades, cuja essência (Wesen) permaneceu impensada até Heidegger colocá-la em questão. (shrink)

This special issue examines critical ethical, legal, and policy debates surrounding brain trauma in sport, focusing on challenges in concussion management practices and protocols. Brain injury concerns extend beyond traditional contact sports like boxing, encompassing sporting activities involving rapid acceleration, deceleration, and surface impacts, such as cycling and equestrian sports. Among such problems are the identification and management of brain injuries, the roles of officials and healthcare professionals, and the broader implications for sport integrity and athlete careers. The special issue (...) is organized into four sections: ethics of concussion medicine, socio-legal aspects, sport ethical dimensions, and public health policies. Contributions discuss concussion management in youth sport, sport federations’ and athletes’ duties involvement in concussion-related research, strategies to support and enhance athlete autonomy, public health-informed brain injury frameworks, conflict of interest in concussion management protocols, litigation and liability in concussion research and collaboration, race and genomics in brain-injury scientific discourses, rule changes in sport to reduce head impact, the contextual nature of brain injury and athlete decision-making, the ethical use of genetic testing in brain-injury related research, marketing strategies to advertise tackle football to children and adolescents, and policy purposes and evidence underpinning concussion management practices. This comprehensive exploration offers diverse disciplinary insights, making it a crucial resource for sport humanities scholars, policymakers, and medical professionals. Keywords: brain injury, sport ethics, concussion, sport law, sport policy. (shrink)

The ultimate source of explanation in biology is the principle of natural selection. Natural selection means differential reproduction of genes and gene combinations. It is a mechanistic process which accounts for the existence in living organisms of end-directed structures and processes. It is argued that teleological explanations in biology are not only acceptable but indeed indispensable. There are at least three categories of biological phenomena where teleological explanations are appropriate.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:92 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY seulement apr~s qu'on a drmontr6 son existence (pp. 182, 183, 185, 188). Or ceci nous parait tout h fait erronr: la critique mrt~physique de l'activit6 rrv~le qu'elle implique drpendance, et non seulement par rapport ~t d'autres 8tres finis (ce qu'Aristote a drift vu), mais par rapport ~t une Cause transcendante et infinie qui, en crrant l'~tre fini, lui donne constamment le pouvoir de se drpasser (...) en produisant ses aetes seconds. C'est pourquoi l'analyse mrtaphysique de l'activit6 est une des voies qui conduisent ~t la drcouverte de Dieu. Scot lui-m~me, du reste, reconnait que tout changement implique drpendance et rrv~le l'existence d'un Etre immuable et absolu (pp. 184-185). Ceci nous donne l'occasion de revenir h la prima via de Thomas d'Aquin. La libert6 avec laquelle nous avons discut6 nagu~re la valeur des quinque viae ne permet pas de nous SOUl~onner d'attachement servile aux positions du saint Docteur. La prima via est une preuve incomplete de l'existence de Dieu entendu comme le Crrateur unique de l'univers, nous avons dit et redit pourquoi. Mais l'argumentation qui s'appuie sur le principe de motion nous a toujours paru et nous parait encore inattaquable: dans la Summa contra Gentiles (I, 13), Thomas 6tait encore emp~tr6 dans la physique d'Aristote, mais, dans la Summa theologiae il se maintient strictement au plan mrtaphysique : un ~tre qui change vraiment ne saurait changer par lui-mSme. Ce principe est inrbranlable et la critique de Duns Scot est inol~rante ici. F. VAN STEENBERGHEN Louvain Francesco Sanchez. By Salvatore Miecolis. (Bari: Tipografia Levante, 1965. Universith di Bari, Pubblicazioni dell'Istituto di filosofia, no. 8. Pp. 100, one plate. No price given). Francisco Sanches,1 the Portuguese philosopher and physician of Jewish parentage who was also a relative of Montaigne, ranks as one of the more interesting of sixteenthcentury thinkers. Not only is he an important reviver of scepticism in the sixteenth century, but his best known work Quod nihil scitur (first printed in 1581) was still well enough known in the next century to draw several separate attacks. What is more, various scholars have pointed out the similarities between the arguments used in Sanches' work and Descartes' cogito argument. Though there are now quite a number of studies on Sanches, especially in Portuguese, there is not yet a defnitive study of aU aspects of his life, thought, and influence. In English there is very little indeed and we could well use a monograph or at least an article on Sanches to make some of his ideas accessible to a wider audience. A definitive study will require much work and 1 This is the Portuguese form of his name. It is also sometimes given the Spanish spelling 'Sanchez' as in the title of Miccolis' book. He was born near the Spanish-Portuguese border about 1550 and moved to France, while still a boy, and there spent the remainder of his life. There has been much discussion whether Sanches was in fact Portuguese or Spanish by birth and, consequently, which is the correct form of his name. It does not seem as though the question of his nationality can be answered with certainty. We have chosen to use the Portuguese form since the Portuguese seem to have adopted him as one of their philosophers more frequently than have the Spanish. BOOK REVIEWS 93 would have to use the extensive notes made by H. P. Cazac, who died before he could utilize all of the material which he had collected,z For these reasons one might look to Miccolis' book as a new contribution to Sanches studies. One is bound to be disappointed, however, for little new material is brought forth here and even previous studies on Sanches are not fully utilized. Although this study has the format of a book, its length is little more than that of a substantial article (ca. 25,000 words). After a very brief introductory section on the life and works of Sanches, the author treats the Quod nihil scitur and 'Sanches and medicine' in... (shrink)

The aim of this dissertation is to provide a critique of the idea that skepticism was the driving force in the development of early modern thought. Historian of philosophy Richard Popkin introduced this thesis in the 1950s and elaborated on it over the next five decades, and recent scholarship shows that it has become an increasingly accepted interpretation. I begin with a study of the relevant historical antecedents—the ancient skeptical traditions of which early modern thinkers were aware—Pyrrhonism and Academicism. Then (...) I discuss the influence of skepticism on three pre-Cartesians: Francisco Sanches, Michel de Montaigne, and Pierre Charron. Basing my arguments on an informed understanding of both ancient Greek skepticism and some of the writings of these philosophers, I contend that it is inaccurate to predominantly characterize Sanches, Montaigne, and Charron as skeptics. To support his thesis about the singular influence of skepticism on early modern thought, Popkin says that René Descartes’ metaphysical philosophy was formed as a response to a skeptical threat and that Descartes ultimately conceded to the force of skepticism. He also argues that David Hume was a Pyrrhonist par excellence. I disagree with Popkin’s claims. I argue that Descartes was not as deeply affected by skepticism as Popkin suggests and that it is inaccurate to characterize Hume as a Pyrrhonist. By offering this critique, I hope to make clear to the readers two things: first, that Popkin’s thesis, though it is both enticing and generally accepted by many scholars, is questionable with regard to its plausibility; second, that the arguments I present in this dissertation reveal that further research into the role of skepticism in early modern philosophy is in order. (shrink)

Este artigo tem como objetivo fundamental apresentar o legado de Kant para as relações internacionais a partir dos artigos preliminares de À paz perpétua (1795). A maioria dos estudos foca sua atenção nos artigos definitivos, porém esquece de analisar a relevância daquilo que antecede. O ponto hipotético desta investigação é que sem os artigos preliminares, os artigos definitivos para a paz entre os povos não têm força suficiente. De um ponto de vista metodológico, este artigo está articulado em duas partes: (...) uma propedêutica sobre o legado da filosofia crítica objetivando reconsiderar a contribuição do autor em termos concretos para a filosofia preparando o caminho para À paz perpétua e, em seguida, uma abordagem focada nas contribuições dos artigos preliminares para a construção pacífica das relações internacionais. (shrink)

A reality-design gap in the conceptualization and practice of digital agriculture has been systematically reported in the literature. This condition is favored by the lack of understanding and inclusion of local worldviews around digital technologies. Informed by Amartya Sen’s capabilities approach, this study looks to bring stories of local appropriation to the spotlight. Based on a qualitative approach that included data collected through interviews with 73 households, the authors explored the way in which two selected communities of Colombian coffee growers (...) are engaged in the use of digital technologies in material and symbolic ways. Three emergent themes—a relational way of farming, (dis)connected machines, and nurtured families and communities – articulate multiple interactions between farmers, farms, institutional programs, and technologies, that originate local forms of digitalization (and non-digitalization). This study points out the relevant role of situated ideas of development in positioning technologies in or out of the farm, and broader digitalization agendas in or out of farmers’ life projects. At the same time, it presents a critique of notions of universality that drive unquestioned quests for technification. In contrast, building on a relational perspective, this study calls for embracing a perspective of multiplicity within notions of development and innovation. (shrink)

The article provides arguments for including social-emotional education in moral education. The first part of the article presents an analysis of the concept of “emotional intelligence”, considering the history of its creation and the methodological difficulties with which this concept is burdened. In the second part of the article, the expectations that can be placed on emotional education classes are formulated. The starting point is empirical research that examined the effectiveness of past attempts to provide emotional education to adolescents and (...) adults. The last part of the article discusses the assumptions of the pedagogical movement that emerged in the 1990s, which calls for conducting classes in the field of so-called “character education”. Furthermore, experiences from social-emotional learning (SEL) classes developed by the University of Illinois are discussed. The text also briefly takes into account Spain's first experiences in the field of emotional education. (shrink)

Resumo: Este trabalho é uma resenha crítica da obra Sociedade paliativa: a dor hoje do filósofo Byung-Chul Han, publicada no Brasil em 2021. O livro argumenta que predomina na sociedade contemporânea a algofobia, aversão à dor. A crescente intolerância ao sofrimento instaura no sujeito um estado quase absoluto de anestesia, que acaba cercando diferentes âmbitos da vida coletiva, do que se denomina de espaço público e de cidadania. Essa tentativa de livrar-se do sofrimento completamente configura a ascensão da democracia paliativa (...) e das fake news, o triunfo da arte e da cultura subordinadas ao like das mídias sociais e a psicologia positiva que sustenta o sujeito do desempenho neoliberal. Palavras-chave: Byung-Chul Han; Sociedade Paliativa; Sociedade da Positividade; Dor; Subjetividade Algophobia and the current palliative democracy Abstract: This work is a critical review of the book The palliative society: pain today by philosopher Byung-Chul Han, published in Brazil in 2021. The book argues that algophobia, aversion to pain, predominates in contemporary society. The growing intolerance to suffering establishes in the subject an almost absolute state of anesthesia that ends up surrounding different areas of collective life, of what is called public space and citizenship. This attempt to get rid of suffering completely configures the rise of palliative democracy and fake news, the triumph of art and culture subordinated to the like of social media and the positive psychology that supports the subject of neoliberal performance. Keywords: Byung-Chul Han; Palliative Society; Society of Positivity; Pain; Subjectivity Algofobia y democracia paliativa actual Resumen: Este trabajo es una revisión crítica del libro Sociedad paliativa: el dolor hoy del filósofo Byung-Chul Han, publicado en Brasil en 2021. El libro argumenta que la algofobia, la aversión al dolor, predomina en la sociedad contemporánea. La creciente intolerancia al sufrimiento instaura en el sujeto un estado de anestesia casi absoluto que termina por envolver diferentes ámbitos de la vida colectiva, de lo que se denomina espacio público y ciudadanía. Este intento de acabar con el sufrimiento configura por completo el auge de la democracia paliativa y las fake news, el triunfo del arte y la cultura subordinados a las redes sociales y la psicología positiva que sustenta el sujeto de la actuación neoliberal. Palabras clave: Byung-Chul Han; Sociedad Paliativa; Sociedad de Positividad; Dolor; Subjetividad Data de registro: 01/03/2023 Data de aceite: 18/10/2023. (shrink)

Resenha do Livro: EAGLETON, Terry. _Sobre o Mal_. Tradução de Fernando Santos. São Paulo: Editora Unesp, 2022, 152 p. ISBN 978-65-5711-142-0.

Working within the parameters of (their reconstruction of) World Athletics’ (WA) definition of fairness, Katerina Jennings and Esther Braun (2024) propose a categorical system better suited to meet...

En “El ánimo neoplatónico de la filosofía de Gadamer” (2016) Gutiérrez sostiene que Plotino es la raíz de las tesis ontológicas de _Wahrheit und Methode _en tanto la unidad del ser del arte y del lenguaje emana en múltiples representaciones. Si bien intérpretes previos han examinado esta influencia en conceptos específicos de Gadamer, como el de verdad (Carpenter, 1994), palabra interior (Arthos, 2009) y crítica a la subjetividad moderna (Doyon, 2012), la eficacia histórica de la tradición neoplatónica en la filosofía (...) gadameriana no ha sido abordada en toda su amplitud. Este estudio pretende profundizar su análisis de dos maneras: 1º) extendiendo la tradición desde su inicio en Plotino hasta su culminación en Nicolás de Cusa; 2º) ampliando su recepción a otros textos que esclarecen su influencia en _Wahrheit und Methode_. La hipótesis es que la totalidad de esta tradición influye en la hermenéutica de Gadamer revelando una fuerza oculta en la historia de la filosofía. Para sustentar esta afirmación, la introducción examina la recepción de Plotino y Nicolás de Cusa en la tradición alemana previa a Gadamer. Luego se analiza en textos claves de Gadamer (1964, 1965, 1980, 2018). Y finalmente se indaga su historia efectual en _Wahrheit und Methode _(1960). (shrink)

En el pensamiento de Paul Ricœur, la libertad se acompaña siempre de la imaginación. En este sentido, la imaginación es definida como la tarea de mediar entre las tensiones que el hombre vive como consecuencia de su inherente desproporción entre finito e infinito. Esta tarea se apoya sobre una característica del mundo que posibilita la operación de la imaginación. Ella implica una conexión pre-refl exiva entre la interioridad humana y el mundo de la vida. Se trata del fenómeno sonoro de (...) la repercusión (retentissement) que constituye una influencia directa que Ricœur recibe de Gaston Bachelard y de Eugène Minkoswski. El enfoque del presente trabajo es develar la herencia de este fenómeno, poco estudiado en la filosofía ricœuriana, a la luz de la evolución de la función imaginativa. (shrink)

O artigo pretende examinar um aspecto ainda pouco explorado no parágrafo 36 de Além do bem e do mal (BM), a saber: a função e o alcance do princípio da economia para a apresentação da hipótese da vontade de poder. A pertinência do princípio se estabelece, ao menos, a partir de Ockham e Newton, que prescrevem a simplicidade como critério para a decisão entre teorias ou explicações concorrentes. O foco aqui, no entanto, será a adesão efetivada por Richard Avenarius e (...) Ernst Mach, que conduzem o princípio da economia ao centro metodológico de seus empreendimentos filosóficos e são relevantes fontes para o uso que Nietzsche faz do princípio em BM §36. Avalia-se, por fim, que Nietzsche promove a redução econômica e estratégica ao confronto de forças (ou vontades) como alternativa à redução empiriocrítica, restrita a uma compreensão físico-mecânica do mundo, de Avenarius e Mach. Pondera-se também, como contraexemplo do princípio da economia, o paralelismo psicofísico de Wundt. Em suas considerações finais, o artigo indica, como perspectiva para futuros trabalhos, algumas vantagens da abordagem da vontade de poder a partir do princípio em questão, em especial, uma renovada direção para o exame do problema da circularidade e autorreferência. (shrink)

Exploring the dynamic interface of environmental psychology and psycholinguistics, this investigation delves into how simulated weather conditions – sunny versus rainy – affect emotional perceptions of linguistic stimuli within a Virtual Reality (VR) framework. Participants assessed words’ emotional valence being exposed to these distinct environmental simulations. Contrary to expectations, we found that while rainy conditions modestly prolonged response times, they did not significantly alter the emotional valence attributed to words. Our study shows that weather can affect emotional cognition, but intrinsic (...) emotional word properties are resilient to environmental influences. This highlights the complex interplay between environmental factors and linguistic processing and reaffirms the importance of environmental contexts in cognitive and emotional evaluations, especially in the face of climate change. By integrating VR technology with environmental psychology and linguistics, our research offers novel insights into the subtle yet significant ways in which virtual and real-world environments converge to shape human emotional and cognitive responses. (shrink)

El presente ensayo explora el itinerario de la crítica que Nietzsche ejerció sobre el arte de Wagner en tres pasos. Primero, se trata de reconocer la juvenil admiración del filósofo por la ópera wagneriana entendida como un renacimiento del drama musical antiguo. Luego, se explora el tránsito hacia su desilusión en la clave de la influencia de Schopenhauer sobre Wagner. Finalmente, el ensayo remata en la crítica madura de Nietzsche sobre Wagner, donde se advierten los prolegómenos decimonónicos de la transformación (...) general del arte en espectáculo en el sentido contemporáneo. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to address the question: Can an artificial neural network (ANN) model be used as a possible characterization of the power of the human mind? We will discuss what might be the relationship between such a model and its natural counterpart. A possible characterization of the different power capabilities of the mind is suggested in terms of the information contained (in its computational complexity) or achievable by it. Such characterization takes advantage of recent results based (...) on natural neural networks (NNN) and the computational power of arbitrary artificial neural networks (ANN). The possible acceptance of neural networks as the model of the human mind's operation makes the aforementioned quite relevant. (shrink)

Este artigo problematiza, sob o ponto de vista teórico da Análise do Discurso francesa, por que, em algumas regiões do Nordeste brasileiro, há quem evite pronunciar a palavra macaco e opte por usar em seu lugar outras palavras, tais como dezessete. A hipótese defendida é a de que essa prática cultural-discursiva, entendida aqui como uma forma de interdição, ocorre basicamente em regiões sertanejas onde a memória do cangaço é ainda marcadamente diluída no cotidiano. A partir da análise de discursos presentes (...) no dia a dia, este artigo pretende contribuir para uma compreensão mais acurada de uma particularidade sociocultural brasileira. (shrink)

Consideramos que uno de los principios basales de las democracias representativas, es el que determina “Una persona, un voto”, debe ser reformulado, debido a que mediante el mismo hemos edificado un sistema socio-político, que estableció, precisamente lo contrario, tanto en términos teóricos como prácticos, de lo que se ufana como definición y que por ende se propuso como finalidad. La frase fetiche que pretendemos erradicar, podríamos circunscribirla en una falacia de “finalidad”, es decir plantea un estado de situación potencial, ideal, (...) de posibilidad hacia; de ninguna manera, puede ser considerado un principio respetable, legítimo o hasta formalmente correcto. El planteo que trazamos parte de la realidad de que todos, no sólo somos, sino que significamos, o poseemos un valor distinto para ese estado que nos promete aquello imposible, incumplible y utópico. La variable determinante es la presencia que el estado ha tenido o no, en el desarrollo de las vidas de los ciudadanos aptos para votar. Utilizaremos el límite de la consideración de pobreza, de acuerdo a las estipulaciones de organismos internacionales, que será el báculo para sostener porque el concepto de compensación se torna central, sí es que pretendemos una democracia que se precie de ser representativa de la voluntad del pueblo. Dentro del contexto o insertos en lo que se da en llamar “filosofía latinoamericana”, que sostiene como uno de sus principios la opción del pobre, creemos que el voto de estos tiene un valor diferente, de cinco, a diferencia de los que no están en tal situación. (shrink)