Previous research in Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) suggests that a main aim of explainability approaches is to satisfy specific interests, goals, expectations, needs, and demands regarding artificial systems (we call these “stakeholders' desiderata”) in a variety of contexts. However, the literature on XAI is vast, spreads out across multiple largely disconnected disciplines, and it often remains unclear how explainability approaches are supposed to achieve the goal of satisfying stakeholders' desiderata. This paper discusses the main classes of stakeholders calling for explainability (...) of artificial systems and reviews their desiderata. We provide a model that explicitly spells out the main concepts and relations necessary to consider and investigate when evaluating, adjusting, choosing, and developing explainability approaches that aim to satisfy stakeholders' desiderata. This model can serve researchers from the variety of different disciplines involved in XAI as a common ground. It emphasizes where there is interdisciplinary potential in the evaluation and the development of explainability approaches. (shrink)

Although the concept of “AI governance” is frequently used in the debate, it is still rather undertheorized. Often it seems to refer to the mechanisms and structures needed to avoid “bad” outcomes and achieve “good” outcomes with regard to the ethical problems artificial intelligence is thought to actualize. In this article we argue that, although this outcome-focused view captures one important aspect of “good governance,” its emphasis on effects runs the risk of overlooking important procedural aspects of good AI governance. (...) One of the most important properties of good AI governance is political legitimacy. Starting out from the assumptions that AI governance should be seen as global in scope and that political legitimacy requires at least a democratic minimum, this article has a twofold aim: to develop a theoretical framework for theorizing the political legitimacy of global AI governance, and to demonstrate how it can be used as a compass for critially assessing the legitimacy of actual instances of global AI governance. Elaborating on a distinction between “governance by AI” and “governance of AI” in relation to different kinds of authority and different kinds of decision-making leads us to the conclusions that much of the existing global AI governance lacks important properties necessary for political legitimacy, and that political legitimacy would be negatively impacted if we handed over certain forms of decision-making to artificial intelligence systems. (shrink)

Discussions of psychological measurement are largely disconnected from issues of measurement in the natural sciences. We show that there are interesting parallels and connections between the two, by focusing on a real and detailed example (temperature) from the history of science. More specifically, our novel approach is to study the issue of validity based on the history of measurement in physics, which will lead to three concrete points that are relevant for the validity debate in psychology. First of all, studying (...) the causal mechanisms underlying the measurements can be crucial for evaluating whether the measurements are valid. Secondly, psychologists would benefit from focusing more on the robustness of measurements. Finally, we argue that it is possible to make good science based on (relatively) bad measurements, and that the explanatory success of science can contribute to justifying the validity of measurements. (shrink)

Despite a voluminous literature on happiness and well‐being, debates have been stunted by persistent dissensus on what exactly the subject matter is. Commentators frequently appeal to intuitions about the nature of happiness or well‐being, raising the question of how representative those intuitions are. In a series of studies, we examined lay intuitions involving happiness‐ and well‐being‐related terms to assess their sensitivity to internal (psychological) versus external conditions. We found that all terms, including ‘happy’, ‘doing well’ and ‘good life’, were far (...) more sensitive to internal than external conditions, suggesting that for laypersons, mental states are the most important part of happiness and well‐being. But several terms, including ‘doing well’, ‘good life’ and ‘enviable life’ were substantially more sensitive to external conditions than others, such as ‘happy’, consistent with dominant philosophical views of well‐being. Interestingly, the expression ‘happy’ was completely insensitive to external conditions for about two thirds of our participants, suggesting a purely psychological concept among most individuals. Overall, our findings suggest that lay thinking in this domain divides between two concepts, or families thereof: a purely psychological notion of being happy, and one or more concepts equivalent to, or encompassing, the philosophical concept of well‐being. In addition, being happy is dominantly regarded as just one element of well‐being. These findings have considerable import for philosophical debates, empirical research and public policy. (shrink)

Resenha do livro "Morte", de Giovanni Casertano.

This volume provides the reader with exclusive insights into Ernest Sosa’s latest ideas as well as main aspects of his philosophical work of the last 50 years. Ernest Sosa, one of the most distinguished contemporary philosophers, is best known for his ground-breaking work in epistemology, and has also contributed greatly to metaphysics, metaphilosophy and philosophy of language.

The articles in this special issue of the yearbook Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy all concern, in one way or another, Hume’s epistemology and metaphysics. There are discussions of our knowledge of causal powers, the extent to which conceivability is a guide to modality, and testimony; there are also discussions of our ideas of space and time, the role in Hume’s thought of the psychological mechanism of ‘completing the union’, the role of impressions, and Hume’s argument against the claim (...) that our perceptions are ‘locally conjoined’ with any entity (namely, a soul). (shrink)

Although we frequently acquire knowledge and skills through social interactions, the focus of most research on learning is on individual learning. Here we characterize Interaction Based Learning, which represents the acquisition of knowledge or skill through social interactions, and compare it to Observational Learning —learning by observation. To that end, we designed a movement synchronization paradigm whereby participants learned Tai-Chi inspired movement sequences from trained teachers in two separated sessions. We used a motion capture system to track the movement of (...) 40 dyads comprised of a teacher and learner, who were randomly divided into OL or IBL groups, and calculated time-varying synchrony of three-dimensional movement velocity. While in the IBL group both the learner and the teacher could see each other through a transparent glass, in the OL group dyads interacted through a one-way mirror, such that the learners observed the teacher, but the teacher could not see the learners. Results show that although the number of movements recalled was not different between groups, we found improved movement smoothness in the IBL compared to the OL group, indicating movement acquisition was better in the IBL group. In addition, we found that motor synchronization levels in dyads improved over time, indicating that movement synchronization can be learned and retained. In the first session, the IBL group, but not the OL group, showed a significant improvement in synchronization. This suggests that dyadic interaction is important for learning movement sequences, and that bidirectional communication of signals and mutual feedback are essential for the consolidation of motor learning. (shrink)

Text-generative AI-systems have become important semantic agents with ChatGPT. We conducted a series of experiments to learn what teachers’ conceptions of text-generative AI are in relation to philosophical texts. In our main experiment, using mixed methods, we had twenty-four high school students write philosophical essays, which we then randomized to essays with the same command from ChatGPT. We had ten prospective teachers assess these essays. They were able to tell whether it was an AI or student essay with 78.7 percent (...) accuracy, which is better than the Open AI Classifier. Interestingly, however, they used criteria like argumentative and logical flawlessness and neutrality. We concluded from this that they are using an inverted Turing test and are no longer looking for rationality in machines but for irrationality in humans. (shrink)

1. Bd. Die Grundlagen. Die spezielle Relativitätstheorie.- 2. Bd. Die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie.

Starting from the premise that what calls for and happens in the work and thinking of translation is inseparable from the experience of reading Heidegger’sphilosophy, this article suggests that translation in Heidegger’s work is a philosophical problem fundamentally implicated in the thinking of Being. The article first examines Heidegger’s distinction between Übersetzen—a form of translation that seeks correspondences between words of different languages, and Übersetzen—a translation within one’s own language that seeks to respond to the “claim” of language itself. The (...) second part of the article links translation with Heidegger’s later reflections on language in Unterwegs zur Sprache, arguing that what is at stake in the work of translation is a thinking of our relation to language. Focusing on the notion of “usage/Brauch,” it concludes with the suggestion that insofar as thinking translation according to Heidegger requires a “response” to the claim of language, it also calls for a more sustained engagement with the question of how the human is claimed and used by language. (shrink)

In his ambitious Schelling's Late Philosophy in Confrontation with Hegel, Peter Dews sets out to reconstruct the fundamental difference between Schelling and Hegel on the basis of two related claims. The first, historical claim is that both are dealing with ‘our current historical situation’, which Dews identifies with ‘modernity’ (Dews 2023: 10). The second, systematic claim is that their mature systematic thinking is characterized by what he calls throughout the book, with reference to a canonical paper by Dieter Henrich (Henrich (...) 1976), their respective Grundoperationen (‘basic operations’). He then walks the reader through major positions that Schelling developed over the course of his philosophical career in order to demonstrate how Schelling arrives at a specific genealogical account of modernity. On this account, modernity is understood as a formation of consciousness, which is supposedly not subject to the Hegelian type of dialectic which, according to Dews, is driven by a rationalism so comprehensive that the very notion of unwarranted constraints on the agency of human beings or of the oppressive shaping of their consciousness has no place. (Dews 2023: 16). (shrink)

Work has always been a significant source of ethical questions, philosophical reflection, and political struggle. Although the future of work in a sense is always at stake, the issue is particularly relevant right now, in light of the advent of advanced AI systems and the collective experience of the COVID-19 pandemic. This has reinvigorated philosophical discussion and interest in the study of the future of work. The purpose of this survey article is to provide an overview of the emerging philosophical (...) field that engages with the future of work, with a special focus on equality and justice, and to outline a research agenda that can help the field to develop further. Section 2 provides some historical context for the current surge in interest in the topic. Then, we discuss what work is and whether there is a philosophy of work (Section 3). The four main sub-debates we then turn to concern the value of work (Section 4), distributive justice and work (Section 5), productive justice (Section 6), and institutional reforms prompted by changes in how work is organized (Section 7). The final section discusses the importance of the distinction between ideal and non-ideal theory in philosophical investigations into the future of work. (shrink)

When speakers utter metaphors, such as "Lawyers are also sharks," they often intend to communicate messages beyond those expressed by the metaphorical meaning of these expressions. For instance, in some circumstances, a speaker may state "Lawyers are also sharks" to strengthen a previous speaker's negative beliefs about lawyers, to add new information about lawyers to listeners to some context, or even to contradict a previous speaker's positive assertions about lawyers. In each case, speaking metaphorically communicates one of these three social (...) messages that are relevant to the ongoing discourse. At the same time, speaking metaphorically may express other social and affective information that is more difficult to convey using non-metaphorical speech, such as "Lawyers are also aggressive." We report the results of three experiments demonstrating that people infer different pragmatic messages from metaphors in varying social situations and that many metaphors can express additional pragmatic and rhetorical meanings beyond those conveyed by non-metaphorical language. These findings demonstrate the importance of trade-offs between cognitive effort and cognitive effects in pragmatic theories of metaphor use and understanding. (shrink)

Legislation and ethical guidelines around the globe call for effective human oversight of AI-based systems in high-risk contexts – that is oversight that reliably reduces the risks otherwise associated with the use of AI-based systems. Such risks may relate to the imperfect accuracy of systems (e.g., inaccurate classifications) or to ethical concerns (e.g., unfairness of outputs). Given the significant role that human oversight is expected to play in the operation of AI-based systems, it is crucial to better understand the conditions (...) for effective human oversight. We argue that the reliable detection of errors (as an umbrella term for inaccuracies and unfairness) is crucial for effective human oversight. We then propose that Signal Detection Theory (SDT) offers a promising framework for better understanding what affects people’s sensitivity (i.e., how well they are able to detect errors) and response bias (i.e., the tendency to report errors given a perceived evidence of an error) in detecting errors. Whereas an SDT perspective on the detection of inaccuracies is straightforward, we demonstrate its broader applicability by detailing the specifics for an SDT perspective on unfairness detection, including the need to choose a standard for (un)fairness. Additionally, we illustrate that an SDT perspective helps to better understand the conditions for effective error detection by showing examples of task-, system-, and person-related factors that may affect the sensitivity and response bias of humans tasked with detecting unfairness associated with the use of AI-based systems. Finally, we discuss future research directions for an SDT perspective on error detection. (shrink)

Ausgehend von historischen und sozialtheoretischen Befunden rekonstruieren wir zunächst in skizzenhafter Form, wie es zu einer Konstruktion von Behinderungen als Verkörperungen einer Mangelhaftigkeit anthropologischen Ausmaßes gekommen ist. In Anschluss hieran vertreten wir die These, dass Behinderung eine kulturelle Norm darstellt, die der Kultur selbst Grenzen setzt. Nicht der Mensch stellt das „eigentliche“ Mängelwesen dar, sondern die gesellschaftliche Kultur vorenthaltener oder eingeschränkter Teilhabe sowie die pädagogische Kultur mangelhafter Bildungsmaßnahmen. In ethischer Hinsicht begründen wir diese These von der Verantwortung gegenüber dem Anderen (...) her, dessen Andersheit wir als irreduzibel bzw. radikal fassen. Wir schließen mit einer kurzen Reflexion über die Frage, wie sich dieser veränderte Zugang zu Menschen mit Behinderungen bildungstheoretisch fassen lässt. (shrink)

Most chelicerates operate the world with two kinds of visual organs, the median and lateral eyes of the arthropod ground plan. In harvestmen (Opiliones), however, members of the small and withdrawn suborder Cyphophthalmi lack eyes except for two genera with lateral eyes. In the other suborders (Eupnoi, Dyspnoi, and Laniatores), lateral eyes are absent but median eyes pronounced. To resolve the phylogenetic history of these contrasting trait states and the taxonomic position of a four‐eyed harvestmen fossil, visual system development was (...) recently studied in the daddy longleg Phalangium opilio (Eupnoi). This effort uncovered not only a highly regressed and internalized pair of lateral eyes but also a similarly cryptic pair of additional median eyes. After recounting the evo‐devo discovery journey of uncompromising harvestmen taxonomists, this review explores comparative evidence that the enigmatic P. opilio relict eyes might serve the multichannel zeitgeber system of the biological clock. (shrink)

Hermann Deuser, international renommierter Theologe, Religionsphilosoph und Fellow am Max-Weber-Kolleg der Universitat Erfurt, hat im Februar 2016 seinen 70. Geburtstag gefeiert. Diesem Anlass widmen die Herausgeber mit dem vorliegenden Band eine Sammlung von Aufsatzen, in denen sich namhafte Weggefahrten und Kollegen aus dem In- und Ausland zu zentralen Aspekten von Deusers Denken, insbesondere seinen jungeren und jungsten Arbeiten zum Verhaltnis von (Natur-)Wissenschaft und Theologie bzw. Religion, programmatisch und im Detail aussern. Es handelt sich folglich nicht um eine Festschrift im ublichen (...) Sinne, sondern um eine Anthologie von Originalbeitragen, die ausschliesslich oder zumindest an prominenter Stelle Deusers substantielle Beitrage zur theologischen und religionsphilosophischen Gegenwartsdebatte konstruktiv-kritisch wurdigen und weiterdenken. Mit Beitragen von:Wolfgang Achtner, Stefan Alkier, Svein Aage Christoffersen, Ingolf U. Dalferth, Hermann Deuser, Hans-Gunter Heimbrock, Eilert Herms, Hans Joas, Matthias Jung, Markus Kleinert, Melanie Kohlmoos, Gesche Linde, Dietmar Mieth, Michael Moxter, Robert Cummings Neville, Lukas Ohly, Martin Schmuck, Heiko Schulz, Saskia Wendel, Catherina Wenzel, Knut Wenzel. (shrink)

One key question in the philosophy of artificial intelligence (AI) concerns how we can recognize artificial systems as intelligent. To make the general question more manageable, I focus on a particular type of AI, namely one that can prove mathematical theorems. The current generation of automated theorem provers are not understood to possess intelligence, but in my thought experiment an AI provides humanly interesting proofs of theorems and communicates them in human-like manner as scientific papers. I then ask what the (...) criteria could be for recognizing such an AI as intelligent. I propose an approach in which the relevant criteria are based on the AI’s interaction within the mathematical community. Finally, I ask whether we can deny the intelligence of the AI in such a scenario based on reasons other than its (non-biological) material construction. (shrink)

En este ensayo considero la relación entre el famoso “viraje” (Kehre) de Heidegger y el realismo. Comienzo con la crítica de Heidegger al problema de un mundo externo, y describo cómo esta crítica anticipa el nuevo realismo. A continuación, ofrezco una reconstrucción de la autocrítica de Heidegger en Ser y tiempo, mostrando cómo esta obra (escrita antes del viraje) exhibe un antirrealismo de orden superior. A continuación, muestro cómo el giro de Heidegger está motivado por la insuficiencia de este antirrealismo (...) anterior. En su filosofía del acontecimiento avanza hacia una ontología realista desarrollando conceptos como el de “destino” (Geschick), que entiende como independiente de las actitudes humanas. Sin embargo, Heidegger vuelve a caer finalmente en un antirrealismo, porque el ser sigue dependiendo de la implicación de los seres humanos. Por tanto, concluyo este ensayo defendiendo brevemente mi propia versión del nuevo realismo, según la cual los objetos tienen sentido de un modo independiente de nuestras actitudes hacia ellos. (shrink)

Der zweite Band der Reihe Philosophische Forschung spannt zwei Kerngebiete der Analytischen Philosophie zusammen: die Semantik und die Ontologie. Was sind die Grundbausteine unserer Ontologie? Wie beziehen wir uns sprachlich bzw. geistig auf sie? Diese und weitere Fragen werden von international renommierten Philosophen aus historischer und systematischer Perspektive diskutiert. Die Beiträge sind in Deutsch und English verfasst. Sie stammen von Christian Beyer, Johannes Brandl, Dagfinn Føllesdal, Dorothea Frede, Rolf George, Gerd Graßhoff, Peter Hacker, Andreas Kemmerling, Edgar Morscher, Kevin Mulligan, Rolf (...) Puster, Richard Schantz, Benjamin Schnieder, Oliver Scholz, Severin Schröder, Peter Simons, Thomas Spitzley, Markus Stepanians, Ralf Stoecker und Daniel von Wachter. (shrink)

This volume explores the human-technology relations that both shape modern educational settings and have a decisive influence on what education is and will be in the future. The contributors present empirical evidence to challenge and reframe the goal of education in relation to technology.

Natur, Kultur und Technik – diese drei Begriffe konstituieren ein mannigfaltiges, komplexes Beziehungsgeflecht, in dessen Zentrum der Mensch und sein Handeln stehen. Wie wollen wir mit technologischen Innovationen und natürlichen Ressourcen umgehen? Lassen sich vermeintliche Gegensätze und Widersprüche auflösen? Und welche kulturelle Praxis kann uns dabei helfen? Fragen wie diese liegen an der Schnittstelle verschiedener Fachdisziplinen. Für die philosophische Reflexion sind sie daher in besonderer Weise fruchtbar. Die Autorinnen und Autoren dieses Bandes thematisieren unterschiedliche Aspekte des Dreigespanns Natur, Kultur und (...) Technik, darunter Bildung, Ernährung, Ethik, Evolution, Nachhaltigkeit, Normsetzung, Umweltmanagement und Willensfreiheit. Sie demonstrieren in ihren Beiträgen ein lebendiges interdisziplinäres Denken, wie es zum Selbstverständnis von APHIN, dem wissenschaftlichen und gemeinnützigen Arbeitskreis philosophierender Ingenieure und Naturwissenschaftler, gehört. (shrink)

Ungeachtet der Rede von einem "nachmetaphysischen Zeitalter" hat sich in der Philosophie im internationalen Diskurs inzwischen ein neues, genuines Bedürfnis nach Metaphysik gemeldet. Um diesem neuen Bedürfnis eine Stimme zu geben, hat sich die Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung 2011 entschlossen, eine internationale Tagung in ihrem Programm des Bonner-Preisträger-Forums in Zusammenarbeit mit den Universitäten Bonn und Köln zu veranstalten. Die Tagung fand vom 24. bis zum 28. Oktober 2012 in Bonn statt. Philosophen aus Deutschland, aus den USA, Italien, Honkong, Japan, der Türkei (...) und der Schweiz waren entweder als Vortragende oder Respondenten geladen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Tagung sind in diesem Band versammelt. Man darf sie als Einladungen verstehen, dem Design einer neuen, modernen Metaphysik, die sich ihrer historischen Wurzeln und Traditionslinien bewußt ist, noch intensiver nachzudenken. (shrink)

Suppose an act of caring can be at once good, even admirable, and still help sustain a system that harms people and our shared world. In this paper, I reflect on interviews with street-level bureaucrats working with civil society to maintain and repair collective capacities for problem-solving and collective reflection in segregated Swedish cities. I want to explore how seeing their work as a form of care – as caring for democracy – may help address the responsibility and distribution of (...) the labor of ‘making democracy work.’ The interviews also draw attention to the ambiguous function of caring: while caring is good in a caring society, it is frustrating in an uncaring one. Where care workers cannot challenge the terms of care, they can only choose either to withdraw, thereby causing direct harm to people even as they expose systemic flaws, or carry on and cooperate, even if it means supporting a flawed, unjust system. (shrink)

Arithmetic is one of the foundations of our educational systems, but what exactly is it? Numbers are everywhere in our modern societies, but what is our knowledge of numbers really about? This book provides a philosophical account of arithmetical knowledge that is based on the state-of-the-art empirical studies of numerical cognition. It explains how humans have developed arithmetic from humble origins to its modern status as an almost universally possessed knowledge and skill. Central to the account is the realisation that, (...) while arithmetic is a human creation, the development of arithmetic is constrained by our evolutionarily developed cognitive architecture. Arithmetic is a sophisticated cultural development, but it is ultimately based on abilities with numerosities that we already possess as infants and share with many non-human animals. Therefore, arithmetic is not purely conventional, an arbitrary game akin to chess. Instead, arithmetic is deeply connected to our basic cognitive capacities. (shrink)

What is judgement? is a question that has exercised generations of philosophers. Early analytic philosophers (Frege, Russell and Wittgenstein) and phenomenologists (Brentano, Husserl and Reinach) changed how philosophers think about this question. This book explores and assesses their contributions and help us to retrace their steps.

Over recent decades, the decline of trust, mounting of fears, and increasing denial of science appear as a marked shift of societal attitudes towards many institutions and professionals. This book analyses these developments and looks at their role in medicine and healthcare, both in terms of the patient-physician relationship and for delivering high-quality healthcare, in order to establish why we need trust and what can be done to restore it. The book begins by offering a conceptual analysis and definition of (...) trust, using a 'pattern definition' based upon typical features and common usage of the term, as well as the related concepts of hope, fear, and belief. It charts evidence for the decline of public trust in various professions, and then looks at the causes, as well as the accompanying growth of fear and the rejection of science. The study addresses possible options for restoring trust in medicine and healthcare, be it in individual physicians, in hospitals, or in managed care institutions. Written jointly by a medical doctor and an academic specialising in Biomedical Ethics, the book will be of interest to those working in the areas of Biomedical Ethics and Law, Medicine and Healthcare, Public Health, Philosophy, Sociology, Politics and Psychology. (shrink)