Defensive medicine is defined as a doctor’s deviation from standard practice to reduce or prevent complaints or criticism. The objectives of this study were to assess the prevalence of the practice of defensive medicine in the UK among hospital doctors and the factors affecting it.

A study on the two concepts of spandrel and fitrah, which appear to have the same meaning but are interpreted differently due to differences in perspective. Both concepts recognise the existence of certain innate faculties in humans and posit that these faculties predispose humans to belief. Spandrel posits that these innate faculties are a by-product of adaptations that enable us to survive in the evolutionary process, whereas fitrah asserts that these faculties are bestowed by God. The impetus for this study (...) is the recognition that human beings are creatures of faith. The prevalence of belief in supernatural powers across all periods, geographical regions and cultures throughout human history, coupled with the existence of common features in all such beliefs despite formal differences, demonstrates the necessity for further research in this area. (shrink)

Bu makale Kalîkalâ- Erzen isimlerinin menşeini ve Müslümanlar tarafından Erzurum havalisinin fetih tarihini ele almaktadır. Kalîkalâ ve Erzen başlangıçta iki farklı yerleşim birimine; ancak daha sonraki dönemlerde aynı şehre isim olarak verilmiştir. Bu konudaki kafa karışıklığı konuyla ilgi araştırmacıları farklı değerlendirmelere sevk etmektedir. Erzurum Erzen’i ve Siirt Erzen’i hakkında kaynaklarda verilen bilgiler de zaman zaman birbirlerinin yerine kullanılabilmekte ve Erzurum’un fetih tarihi hakkında yanlış değerlendirmelere sebep olmaktadır. Yanıltıcı bir diğer nokta ise, kaynaklarda geçen “Ermenyakus” ifadesinin ülke ismi olmasına rağmen patrik (...) ismi sanılmasıdır. (shrink)

The present study discusses findings that replicate and extend the original work of Burns and Vollmeyer (2002), which showed that performance in problem solving tasks was more accurate when people were engaged in a non-specific goal than in a specific goal. The main innovation here was to examine the goal specificity effect under both observation-based and conventional action-based learning conditions. The findings show that goal specificity affects the accuracy of problem solving in the same way, both when the learning stage (...) of the task is observationbased and when it is action-based. Additionally, the findings show that, when instructions do not promote goal specificity, observation-based problem solving is as effective as action-based problem solving. (shrink)

Gallicanism is specifically related to the Catholic Church of France, and it is a set of ecclesiastical and political doctrines and practices which tried to limit the powers of the Papacy in France in general. In particular, it characterized the situation of the Catholic Church in France at certain periods. The emergence of Gallicanism as a specific idea came about in the 14th century and was first used as a term in 1810. Almost everything expressed by Gallicanism is a distinctive (...) development within the French Catholic Church. Gallicanism was mostly about the riches of the Catholic Church and administrative matters rather than a theological movement. These issues were mostly related to episcopal jurisdiction, appointments of bishops, church properties and revenues, and at the core of all these issues lay the sharing of church revenues. The French Crown began to acquire gains, especially regarding the property and financial income of the church with the weakening of the power of the Papacy. This new situation left the bishops between the popes and the kings, and prepared the ground for the development of Gallicanism in the country. However, Gallicanism did not come around as a separatist movement and did not lead to the separation of the Catholic Church of France from the Roman Catholic Church. Due to the conflicts of interests between the king, parliament and the clergy, Gallicanism could not develop into a monolithic thought or doctrine, it manifested itself in different perspectives. These manifestations have been treated as Episcopal, Parliamentary, and Royal Gallicanism in most academic studies. Each of these different Gallican ideas brought to the fore the institutions indicated in their naming and received support from them. However, all three versions of Gallicanism shared some common ideals. These are the common ideals of different Gallicanisms: the independence of the king of France in worldly affairs, the supremacy of an ecumenical council over the pope, and the restriction of the pope's intervention in the French Catholic Church. Royal Gallicanism aimed to gather the powers snatched away from the Papacy in the hands of the king. Parliamentary Gallicanism shared similar principles with Royal Gallicanism. (shrink)

The idea of ​​an aesthetics of existence deals first with meditation. Namely, the reflection on the one hand of what we call aesthetics, on the other of what we call existence, and again this consideration includes the relationship of one with the other. According to its origin, the term aesthetic [aisthēsis] means to perceive, feel or hear something. The word existence [existemi], according to its origin, means something that exists, something that is there. Thus existence also means being there. The (...) aesthetics of existence means then, first of all, the perception of existence. (shrink)

Pathways to Contemporary Islam: New Trends in Critical Engagement highlights that the current tensions in Islam and the Muslim world are the result of historical dynamics as opposed to an alleged incompatibility between religious tradition and modernity. The emphasis on pathways indicates that critical engagement and contestation have always been intrinsic to the history of Islam. The aim of the book is to elaborate the contemporary pathways and analyse the trends that contest the Islamic intellectual tradition, the relationship between religion (...) and politics, and the individual and collective practice of religion. The collection of essays analyses the current efforts of critical re-engagement with the Islamic intellectual tradition and underlines the historical diversity of Islamic orthodoxies that led to the establishment of various pathways in the practice and role of religion in Muslim societies. (shrink)

Turkish culture is based on tolerance, the product of the unique Islam–Turkish synthesis. This synthesis is crucial today for a more balanced perception of Islam because it opposes extremism and the terror that is associated with it. The Turkish–Ottoman Empire followed earlier traditions and set up a system based on tolerance towards its ethnically diverse subjects. It was due to this exceptional system assuring stability and freedom of conscience that the Empire was able to hold together people of different religions, (...) languages and races, and to protect and preserve different cultures and languages. This tradition of tolerance and harmony lives on in modern Turkey. Although today there are bound to be certain misinterpretations of Islam, the majority of Turks firmly oppose intolerance and terrorism. (shrink)

In problem solving research insights into the relationship between monitoring and control in the transfer of complex skills remain impoverished. To address this, in four experiments participants solved two complex control tasks that were identical in structure but varied in presentation format. Participants learnt either to solve the second task, based on their original learning phase from the first task, or learnt to solve the second task, based on another participant’s learning phase. Experiment 1 showed that, under conditions in which (...) participants’ learning phase was experienced twice, performance deteriorated in the second task. In contrast, when the learning phases in the first and second tasks differed, performance improved in the second task. Experiment 2 introduced instructional manipulations that induced the same response patterns as Experiment 1. In Experiment 3 further manipulations were introduced that biased the way participants evaluated the learning phase in the second task. In Experiment 4, judgments of self-efficacy were shown to track control performance. The implications of these findings for theories of complex skill acquisition are discussed. (shrink)

In most countries where Islam is acknowledged as a, or the, source of legislation, abortion is permitted under certain conditions and at certain stages of pregnancy. This article examines some of these laws and argue that they represent a continuation of the logic that governed the views of pre-modern Muslim jurists on abortion, that is, harm aversion. However, these laws also add a ‘modernist’ twist to that logic – rather than repealing that logic altogether, modernist views on ‘rights’ and the (...) advancement of medical knowledge and technology have influenced the priorities of Muslim jurists and lawmakers as far as abortion and the issues associated with it are concerned. This influence has furthermore been possible by a conscious selection and blending of pre-modern views to serve modern concerns. In all this, however, harm aversion remains the centrifugal principle, even when the abortion discourse in Muslim countries appears couched in the modernist discourse of rights. (shrink)

Una conversación con Christian Niemeyer acerca de su nuevo libro: Nietzsche, New School.

This paper consists of two parts and has two aims. The first is to elaborate on the historical-philosophical background of Cantor’s notions of infinity in the context of Spinoza’s influence on him. To achieve this aim, in the first part I compare Spinoza’s and Cantor’s conceptions of actual infinity along with their mathematical implications. Explaining the metaphysical, conceptual, and methodological aspects of Cantor’s expansion of the orthodox finitist conception of number of his time, I discuss how he adopts Spinoza’s motifs (...) to overcome the challenges on his way to proposing his transfinite infinites. To achieve the second aim, i.e., to investigate the philosophical foundations of Cantor’s transfinite infinites, I follow a three-step outline analyzing Cantor’s three principles along with their metaphysical and epistemological-linguistic aspects. I analyze the strengths and weak sides of Lakoff and Núñez’s Basic Metaphor of Infinity and Pantsar’s Process → Object Metaphor, then compare their interpretations with mine. I conclude that the metaphors can be improved when their source domains are limited to the target domains they apply to and when supported by a thorough analysis of the historical-philosophical background of their target domains. (shrink)

Bu makalede, râ harfinin tefhîm/kalın ve terkîk/ince okunmasına dair hususlar son dönem Osmanlı kurrâlarından Bursalı Süleyman Vehbi’nin (öl. 1334/1916) Risâle-i Râiyye adlı eseri ekseninde ele alınmıştır. Kur’ân harflerinin seslendiriliş biçimini ifade eden fonetik farklılıklar kıraat ilminin amelî/pratik boyutunu oluşturan en önemli unsurdur. Bu minvalde Kur’ân alfabesindeki harfler genel olarak, birbirinin zıddı olan tefhîm-terkîk sıfatlarından biriyle seslendirilmektedir. Bununla birlikte lâm ve râ harfleri bazen kalın bazen de ince okunmaktadır. Lâm harfinde aslolanın terkîkle telaffuz edilmesi olup bazı durumlarda tağlîzle/tefhîmle okunduğu hususunda ittifak (...) edilmiştir. Fakat âlimler râ harfinin tefhîm veya terkîki konusunda ihtilaf etmişlerdir. Bazıları, aslı itibariyle râ harfinde tefhîm-terkîk özelliği bulunmayıp birtakım şartlar muvacehesinde bunlardan birisiyle okunduğunu söylerken; cumhur ise râ’da aslolan tefhîm olup bazı şartlar çerçevesinde terkîkle okunduğunu ileri sürmüştür. Husûsen Verş (öl. 197/812) rivâyeti ve Ezrak (öl. 240/854) tarikine göre râ harfinin tefhîm-terkîkle okunması gereken yerlerin tespiti kıraat tedrisatında zaptı en zor olan hususlardan addedilmiştir. Hâl böyle iken günümüze değin râ harfine dair kurrâ arasındaki ihtilafların tam anlamıyla açıklanıp vuzuha kavuşturulduğu -Süleyman Vehbi’nin risâlesi dışında- Türkçe bir eser kaleme alınmamıştır. Türkçe eserlerde râ’nın okunuşuna dair hususlar genelde Hafs (öl. 180/796) rivâyeti özelinde işlenmiş, Verş ve Ezrak’ın, râ harfini okuyuş keyfiyetlerine yönelik bilgilere yeterli ölçüde yer verilmemiştir. Bu bağlamda mezkûr boşluğun doldurulması, çalışmanın amaçlarından biridir. Makalenin Risâle-i Râiyye çerçevesinde ele alınmasının sebebi müellifin, Osmanlı’daki kıraat tedrisinde temel kaynak olarak kullanılan en-Neşr, İthâf, Zübdetü’l-irfân, Umdetü’l-hullân, el-Îtilâf, Bedâi‘u’l-burhân ve Mürşidü’t-talebe gibi eserlerin hemen hepsine müracaat edip konuyu sistematik bir şekilde ele alması ve yeri geldikçe mezkûr eserlerdeki hata ve eksikliklere değinmesidir. Makalede öncelikle müellifin hayatına yer verilmiş, ardından risâlede işlenen konular tavzih edilmiştir. Bu yapılırken müellifin verdiği bilgilerin aslî kaynaklardaki yeri ve râ’nın tefhîm-terkîk ile okunmasının illeti/sebebi tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca müellifin eser içerisinde hata ve eksikliklerine değindiği kaynakların ilgili yerleri tespit edilip hangi ibare ve ifadelerle tashih edilmesi gerektiğine işaret edilerek araştırmacılara kolaylık sağlanması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışma sonunda görülmüştür ki Ezrak, esreli râlar’ın terkîkinde ve kelime başlarındaki fethalı-zammeli râlar’ın tefhîminde diğer kurrâ ile müttefiktir. Ancak kelime ortasında-sonunda bulunan mansûb-meftûh râlar’ı “kelimenin aslından olan lâzımî kesreli harften sonra gelmesi”, “lâzımî kesreyle râ’nın arasında sakin bir hurûf-i isti‘lânın -hâ/خ hariç- bulunmaması” ve “râ’nın sakin yâ harfinden sonra gelmesi” durumunda sadece terkîkle; bu şartları taşımakla birlikte râ’nın tenvinli olması durumunda terkîk ve tefhîm olmak üzere iki vecihle; bu şartlardan birinin bulunmaması durumunda ise sadece tefhîmle okumuştur. Mazmûm ve merfû râlar’ı ise mansûb râlar için zikri geçen şartları taşımaları halinde Verş sadece terkîk, Ezrak ise terkîk ve tefhîm vechiyle okumuştur. Burada şunu ifade etmek gerekir ki kütüphanelerde özellikle Osmanlı dönemine ait pek çok kıraat eseri gün yüzüne çıkarılmayı beklemektedir. Söz konusu eserlerin ortaya çıkarılıp incelenmesi hem süreç içerisinde kıraat ilminin nasıl bir seyir izlediğinin tespiti hem de mezkûr eserlerin verilerinden istifade edilerek yeni çalışmaların ortaya konulması açısından önem arz etmektedir. (shrink)

This article discusses the quiddity of the empty set from its epistemological and linguistic aspects. It consists of four parts. The first part compares the concept of _nihil privativum_ and the empty set in terms of representability, arguing the empty set can be treated as a negative and formal concept. It is argued that, unlike Frege’s definition of zero, the quantitative negation with a full scope is what enables us to represent the empty set conceptually without committing to an antinomy. (...) The second part examines the type and scope of the negation in the concept of _nihil privativum_ and the empty set. In the third part the empty set is interpreted as a rigid abstract general term. The uniqueness of the empty set is explained via a widened version of Kripke’s notion of rigidity. The fourth part proposes a construction for the pure singleton, comparing it with Zermelo’s conception of singletons with the Ur-elements. It is argued that the proposed construction does not face the criterion and ontological inflation problems. The first conclusion of the article is that the empty set can be construed as a negative, formal and unique abstract general term, with quantitative negation full in scope. The second conclusion is that the pure singleton constructed out of the empty set construed in this way overcomes the criterion and ontological inflation problems. (shrink)

Modernizmle birlikte Batı'nın değişen insan, dünya, evren ve Tanrı algısı, şüphesiz Batı ile sınırlı kalmamış, hemen hemen bütün dünyayı etkilemiştir. Maddeye şekil verme hünerini ileri derecede geliştiren ve bunu kullanarak dünyanın geri kalan önemli bir kısmını ya bizzat veya nüfuz alanı oluşturarak egemenliği altına alan ve dünya coğrafyasında önemli değişiklikler meydana getiren Batı'nın bu faaliyetleri, ondan etkilenen diğer kültürlerin kendi din, ahlak, gelenek ve adetlerinden şüphe etmesine sebep olmuştur. Batı'nın üzerimizdeki askeri faaliyetlerinin ve belki Batı'ya olan coğrafi yakınlığımızın, bu etkinin (...) bizde daha fazla hissedilmesinin kaynağı olduğu söylenebilir. Bu çerçevede, fikir dünyamızda son yüzyılda seyreden bir hareketlilikten ve buna bağlı olarak meydana gelen önemli değişikliklerden söz etmek mümkündür. Kendi kültür, ahlak, din, örf, adet, gelenek, kısacası medeniyet anlayışımızı, yeni paradigmaya uydurma gayreti, aydınlarımızın çoğunun seçtiği yol olmuştur. Bununla birlikte Batı'dan teknolojinin, teknolojiyi oluşturan bilginin ve bilgi yönteminin alınmasının şart olduğunu, ancak kadim kültürün korunması gerektiğini savunan aydınlarımız da az değildir. İşte bunlardan biri de son yüzyılda, kültürümüz ve kültürümüzü meydana getiren bilgi dallarıyla ilgili birçok eser kaleme almış olan Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen'dir. Bir toplumu, diğerlerinden ayıran en önemli faktörlerden biri de etik kurallar konusundaki tercihlerdir. Bilmen, belki de bunu fark ettiği için, etik konusuna çok fazla önem vermiş, bu konudaki değişime karşı çıkmış ve kadim ahlak sisteminin korunması gerektiğini var gücüyle savunmuştur. Bu kitap ise, Bilmen'in bu konudaki düşüncelerini ele almakta ve irdelemektedir. (shrink)

Given the privileged status claimed for active learning in a variety of domains (visuo-motor learning, causal induction, problem solving, education, skill learning), the present study examines whether action-based learning is a necessary, or a sufficient, means of acquiring the relevant skills needed to perform a task typically described as requiring active learning. To achieve this, the present study compared the effects of action-based and observation-based learning on controlling a complex dynamic task environment. Both action- and observationbased learners either learnt by (...) describing the changes in the environment in the form of a conditional statement, or not. The findings show that observational learners are sensitive to the instructional manipulations pursued during learning, in ways that are comparable to the active learning conditions. For both, advantages in performance, accuracy in knowledge of the task, and self-insight were found when learning was based on inducing rules from the task environment. (shrink)

Reseña de los libros: Barbara Neymeyr - Kommentar zu Nietzsches "Unzeitgemässen Betrachtungen": I. David Strauss der Bekenner und der Schriftsteller, II. Vom Nutzen und Nachtheil der Historie für das Leben, Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter, 2020 Barbara Neymeyr - Kommentar zu Nietzsches "Unzeitgemässen Betrachtungen": III. Schopenhauer als Erzieher, IV. Richard Wagner in Bayreuth, Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter, 2020.

It is generally considered and widely accepted that Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī School to be effective in the formation and development of Ottoman intellectual life. However, there are some ʻulamā’ such as Jalāl al-Dīn al-Dawānī, who influenced the Ottoman mindset with both their works and ideas and beyond, they create distinct traditions. Present outline aims to draw attention to this issue through Mu’ayyadzāda ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Efendi, who is a famous disciple and representative of al-Dawānī perspective in Anatolia. In this respect, it (...) introduces the two risālas belongs to him that are important in terms of his theory of nature, and by moving here it points to some questions that need to be answered here and some issues that need to be addressed. (shrink)

Science is widely regarded as the most reliable epistemic source of providing knowledge about the world. Policymakers intend to make purposeful changes in the world. The practice of policymakers relying on scientific experts to make informed decisions about which policies to implement is called Evidence Based Policymaking. This thesis provides a perspective from the philosophy of science in order to discuss the justifiability of Evidence Based Policymaking (EBP) with respect to broadly democratic and liberal values. Justifying EBP with broadly democratic (...) and liberal values entails that the practices of EBP promote, or at least are in harmony with, values such as democratic governance and enhancement of people’s freedom and autonomy. Identifying the conditions under which practices of EBP meet such desiderata minimally requires an understanding of how sciences and scientific experts are instrumental in realizing the public’s values, needs, interests, and pursuit of freedom. In order to approach this project, the thesis adopts a philosophical perspective to conceptualize how sciences are supposed to be guided by or promote society’s values, needs, and interests. Specifically, it adopts a perspective from the philosophy of science that focuses on the relationship between science and (societal) values. The kind of philosophy of science perspective on “values in science” that this thesis adopts has two overarching pursuits relevant for the project of the thesis. Firstly, it seeks to inform the debates about which values and non-epistemic considerations are supposed to inform scientific research. For instance, it discusses the proper sources/owners of the non-epistemic desiderata that inform scientific research and the proper social mechanisms to identify these non-epistemic desiderata (e.g. Kourany, 2010; Kitcher, 2011). Second, it offers theories of the non-epistemic values’ proper roles in scientific reasoning and research that specify how their involvement in science does not unduly compromise the epistemic pursuits of science. The values-in-science perspective thereby seeks to balance the instrumental value of science (i.e., its use to pursue certain societal projects and values) with its epistemic authority (i.e., its objectivity, non-dogmatism, and reliability). The thesis advances an understanding of EBP from the perspective of the values in science by addressing issues that come to the fore when EBP is acknowledged as a value-laden practice of informed decision-making. (shrink)