Propertarian justifications of intellectual property postulate the appropriation of various entities, often called patterns, designs, or technologies. These must be immaterial and should not be confused with material structures that embody them. Hence two classes of objects are distinguished. It is convenient to refer to them as types and tokens. The type must involve a condition defining which material structures should be considered its tokens. For an IP regime to be economically meaningful one must necessarily appropriate types in a way (...) which restricts access to wide classes of similar, non-identical material structures. Therefore, type conditions must be general. They must define, with a margin of tolerance, only certain aspects of the structure, leaving others unspecified. Consequently, the relationship between such types and tokens is of many-to-many variety. The recognition of these facts leads to four problems in justifying intellectual property on propertarian grounds. The first problem is to demonstrate possession of the type in the pre-legal situation. The second one is to explain, why boundaries of an appropriated type should be placed in a particular location. The third problem is to avoid claim deadlocks resulting from conflicts of rights generated by separate overlapping types. The fourth problem is to justify why ownership of the type should entail the control over other separate entities—that is tokens. In the propertarian framework grounded in the pre-legal state of nature, satisfactory solutions do not seem to have been proposed for any of these four problems. (shrink)

Teoria własności intelektualnej Kennetha E. Himmy ma na celu uzasadnienie prawa naturalnego do intelektualnej "zawartości" dzieł sztuki i wynalazków. Uważa się przy tym dość powszechnie, że ową zawartość stanowią obiekty abstrakcyjne. Himma proponuje modyfikację znanego argumentu Johna Locke'a z uwzględnieniem koncepcji wartości. Utrzymuje, że nawet jeśli obiekty abstrakcyjne istnieją przed ich rzekomym "stworzeniem", to ich "konsumpcja" nie jest możliwa, dopóki wynalazca lub artysta nie wykona określonej pracy. Praca ta ma jego zdaniem być niezbędna dla zapewnienia dostępu do tychże obiektów. Himma (...) interpretuje ten akt jako "tworzenie wartości" które uzasadnia przyznanie wynalazcom i artystom praw własności intelektualnej. W niniejszej pracy założenia na których opiera się teoria Himmy poddane są krytycznej analizie. Argumentuje się, że ludzka praca nie może zwiększyć dostępności obiektów abstracyjnych oraz że pojęcie wartości nie ma do nich zastosowania. Spostrzeżenie to podważa zasadność proponowanej teorii. Ponadto rozważana jest zasadność postulowanych przez Himmę praw. Argumentuje się, że prawa te są niemożliwe do wyegzekwowania w odniesieniu do obiektów abstrakcyjnych i nie implikują praw do kontroli nad obiektami materialnymi. (shrink)

In [2], Bar-Hillel, Gaifman, and Shamir prove that the simple phrase structure grammars (SPGs) defined by Chomsky are equivalent in a certain sense to Bar-Hillel's bidirectional categorial grammars (BCGs). On the other hand, Cohen [3] proves the equivalence of the latter ones to what the calls free categorial grammars (FCGs). They are closely related to Lambek's syntactic calculus which, in turn, is based on the idea due to Ajdukiewicz [1]. For the reasons which will be discussed in the last section, (...) Cohen's proof seems to be at least incomplete. This paper yields a direct proof of the equivalence ofFCGs andSPGs. (shrink)

Ludwik Fleck says that a thought-collective develops a thought-style which shapes the ways of perceiving the world and thinking of the world by its members. So how could it happen that at the end of 1900 Max Planck, whose thinking was determined by classical mechanics, managed to think that energy is quantized - the idea that contradicted the principles of Newton's mechanics? My answer is that Planck did not intend to think it.

This book challenges the widespread view of Kierkegaard’s idiosyncratic and predominantly religious position on mimesis. -/- Taking mimesis as a crucial conceptual point of reference in reading Kierkegaard, this book offers a nuanced understanding of the relation between aesthetics and religion in his thought. Kaftanski shows how Kierkegaard's dialectical-existential reading of mimesis interlaces aesthetic and religious themes, including the familiar core concepts of imitation, repetition, and admiration as well as the newly arisen notions of affectivity, contagion, and crowd behavior. Kierkegaard’s (...) enduring relevance to the malaises of our own day is firmly established by his classic concern for the meaning of human life informed by reflective meditation on the mimeticorigins of the contemporary age.​ -/- Kierkegaard, Mimesis, and Modernity will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working on Kierkegaard, Continental philosophy, the history of aesthetics, and critical and religious studies. (shrink)

This is a completely revised and updated second edition of Rights Before Courts (2005, paper edition 2008). This book carefully examines the most recent wave of the emergence and case law of activist constitutional courts: those that were set up after the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to most other analysts and scholars, the study does not take for granted that they are a "force for good" but rather subjects them to critical scrutiny against a (...) background of wide-ranging comparative and theoretical analysis of constitutional judicial review in the modern world. The new edition takes in new case law and constitutional developments in the decade since the first edition, including considering the recent disturbing disempowerment of the Hungarian Constitutional Court (which previously was probably the most powerful constitutional court in the world) resulting from the fundamental constitutional changes brought about by the Fidesz government. (shrink)

ABSTRAKT: Centralnym tematem artykułu jest pojęcie wolności, które – wespół z odpowiedzialnością – było dla Szasza pojęciem najważniejszym, „cywilizującym”. W części pierwszej przedstawiam i analizuję definicję i uwarunkowania wolności w ujęciu Szasza, w części zaś drugiej przypominam odpowiedź Szasza na fundamentalne, zawsze aktualne pytanie: „jak ocalić nie tylko religijną, lecz i medyczną wolność”? Na zakończenie staram się uwidocznić sens tytułu książki Szasza na tle jego własnych poglądów. -/- *** -/- ABSTRACT: The central topic of the article is the concept of (...) freedom, which – together with responsibility – was the most important, “civilizing” concept for Szasz. In the first part, I present and analyse the definition and conditions of freedom according to Szasz, and in the second part I recall Szasz’s answer to the fundamental, always relevant question: “how to save not only religious, but also medical freedom”? Finally, I try to highlight the meaning of the title of Szasz’s book against the background of his own views. (shrink)

In this article the author argues that the 'Liar' Paradox sentence: "This sentence is false" is neither true nor false because it does not express any proposition or "Satz" in the sense of Bernard Bolzano. The difficulty left open is that by a similar line of reasoning also the sentence "This sentence is true" would not express any proposition, yet it is sometimes taken to be true (on the strength of a theorem by Loewe).

Qu'est-ce que l'homme? En se basant sur l'anthropologie à la fois d'Aristote et de Saint Thomas d'Aquin, Maritain propose une conception de l'homme dans laquelle la morale est étroitement liée aux composantes ontologiques dans l'être humain. Le personnalisme de Maritain met l'accent sur le caractère communautaire de l'humanisme. L'homme s'accomplit au moment où il se donne à soi-même et aux autres. Ces deux dimensions du don sont constitutives pour que l'homme s'épanouisse intégralement et pleinement : le don à l'égard de (...) soi-même (la surexistence en connaissance et en amour) et le don à l'égard des autres (le service du bien commun). (shrink)

In authoritarian states, the discourse on freedom of speech, conducted by those opposed to non-democratic governments, focuses on the core aspects of this freedom: on a right to criticize the government, a right to advocate theories arid ideologies contrary to government-imposed orthodoxy, a right to demand institutional reforms, changes in politics, resignation of the incompetent and the corrupt from positions of authority. The claims for freedom of speech focus on those exercises of freedom that are most fundamental and most beneficial (...) to citizens - and which are denied to them by the government. But in a by-and large democratic polity, where these fundamental benefits of freedom of speech are generally enjoyed by the citizens, the public and scholarly discourse on freedom of speech hovers about the peripheries of that freedom; the focus is on its outer boundaries rather than at the central territory of freedom of speech. Those borderline cases, in which people who are otherwise genuinely committed to the core aspects of freedom of speech may sincerely disagree, include pornography, racist hate speech and religious bigoted expressions, defamation of politicians and of private persons, contempt of court, incitement to violence, disclosure of military or commercial secrets, advertising of merchandise such as alcohol or cigarettes or of services and entertainment such as gambling and prostitution. (shrink)

Ze słynnego passusu w Metafizyce Arystotelesa (984 a8-16) wynika jasno, że Anaksagoras urodził się wprawdzie wcześniej niż Empedokles, lecz to myśliciel z Akragas opublikował dzieła swe szybciej. Zaskakuje to, iż niemal jednogłośnie się przyjmuje, że fakt ów decyduje o hierarchii między Anaksagorasem i Empedoklesem: niemal wszyscy badacze zakładają, że starszy myśliciel był mocno zależny od młodszego. W artykule swoim staram się pokazać, iż aby utrzymać taki obraz historii filozofii starożytnej niektórzy słynni uczeni współcześni czynią zły użytek ze świadectw i wyrządzają (...) krzywdę nie tylko Stagirycie i Klazomeńczykowi, lecz również owej przyzwoitej mniejszości badaczy, którzy nie czują się zdolni przeoczyć faktu, że – według Alkidamasa – to Empedokles wysłuchał wykładów Anaksagorasa i mu zazdrościł, a nie – vice versa. *** A famous passage in Aristotle’s Metaphysics (984 a8-16) clearly implies that although the Clazomenian sage was born earlier than the philosopher from Acragas, it was Empedocles who was faster in publishing his own works. Surprisingly, it is almost unanimously assumed that this fact is decisive in establishing the hierarchy between Anaxagoras and Empedocles: almost all scholars presume that the older thinker depended heavily upon the younger. In my article I try to show that in order to maintain such image of the history of ancient philosophy some famous modern scholars misuse the testimonia and abuse not only Aristotle and Anaxagoras, but also that decent minority of researchers who feel unable to overlook the fact that – according to Alcidamas – it was Empedocles who had heard Anaxagoras and was jealous of him, not vice versa. (shrink)

Artykuł zawiera filologiczno-filozoficzną weryfikację „szkicu przekładu” fragmentów księgi Heraklita z Efezu, jakiego przed rokiem 1921 dokonał Henryk Elzenberg. Własnej próby tłumaczenia maksym Efezyjczyka nie oparł Elzenberg na ich źródłach, lecz na trzeciej edycji zbioru Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1912) Hermanna Dielsa, który wyimki z oryginalnych passusów redagował czterokrotnie i rozmaicie przekładał. By jak najlepiej ocenić i zweryfikować Elzenbergowy „szkic przekładu”, autor przytoczył – kolejno – (1) źródła greckie, (2) własne ich tłumaczenia, (3) teksty greckie analizowanych „fragmentów” Efezyjczyka w redakcji Dielsa, (...) (4) ich niemieckie przekłady autorstwa Dielsa i – na tle ich wszystkich – (5) translatorskie próby Elzenberga. Zastosowana metodologia ułatwiła sformułowanie wniosku, że wierny był wprawdzie młody Elzenberg własnej zasadzie, by niczego – przekładów niemieckiego filologa nie pomijając – nie czytać „potulnie”, na niwie jednak stricte filologicznej bezwiednie padł ofiarą „bezradności” Dielsa, gdyż w jego „szkicu przekładu” aforyzmów Heraklita nic doprawdy nie świadczy o tym, aby (1) odkrył – albo przynajmniej przeczuwał – jakąkolwiek między nimi „współzależność” (Zusammenhang), i by (2) na jej podstawie sformułował jakiekolwiek własne wnioski filozoficzne, odzwierciedlające myśl Efezyjczyka. Najlepiej tego dowiodło porównanie fragmentu B67 z maksymą B53 na tle ich źródeł oraz ich przekładów. *** HERACLITUS IN ELZENBERG’S INTERPRETATION PART I: WHAT MISTAKES COULD THE AUTHOR OF THE TROUBLE WITH EXISTENCE HAVE EASILY AVOIDED, IF ONLY HE HAD VALUED THE SOURCES MORE THAN DIELS’ COLLECTION AND TRUSTED THEM AND HIMSELF MORE? SUMMARY The article contains a philological and philosophical verification of a “sketch of a translation” of the fragments of the book of Heraclitus of Ephesus, which Henryk Elzenberg made before the year 1921. Elzenberg did not base his own attempt to translate maxims of the Ephesian sage on their sources, but on the third edition of the collection Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1912) compiled by Hermann Diels, who had four times edited and variously translated excerpts from the original passages. In order to best evaluate and verify Elzenberg’s “sketch of a translation”, the author has quoted – in succession – (1) the Greek sources, (2) his own translations of them, (3) Diels’ versions of the Greek texts of the Ephesian’s fragments analyzed here, (4) Diels’ German translations of them and – against all of these – (5) Elzenberg’s attempts at translation. The methodology used in the article has facilitated the formulation of a conclusion that although the young Elzenberg was faithful to his own principle of reading nothing whatsoever “meekly” – without overlooking the translations of the German philologist – nevertheless, on strictly philological grounds, he unwittingly fell victim to Diels’ “helplessness”, because in fact nothing in his “sketch of a translation” of Heraclitus’ aphorisms provides evidence that (1) he discovered – or at least presaged – any “connection” (Zusammenhang) between them, or that (2) he formulated on the basis thereof any philosophical conclusions, reflecting the Ephesian’s thought. The best proof of this emerges from a comparison of fragment B67 with maxim B53 based on the sources and the translations. (shrink)

Author: Burszta Wojciech Józef Title: SUBJECTIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF NATIONALISM (Podmiotowa rekonstrukcja nacjonalizmu) Source: Filo-Sofija year: 2011, vol:.12, number: 2011/1, pages: 311-328 Keywords: NATIONALISM, METONYMY, METAPHOR, IDENTITY, SYMBOLIC CULTURE, PROPOSITION Discipline: PHILOSOPHY Language: POLISH Document type: ARTICLE Publication order reference (Primary author’s office address): E-mail: www:The article invokes the idea of subjective reconstruction of symbolic culture, originally proposed by Jerzy Kmita in his book Culture and Cognition (1985), and places his thesis in contemporary world of cultural flows. The author focuses (...) on demonstrating how we can apply a subjective interpretation of culture phenomena in the context of nationalism and national mythology. Renaissance of the ideology of nationalism nowadays is not so striking in the light of detailed reconstruction of a hidden normative and directive propositions which people formulate according to a proper order of the social arrangements. Subjective reconstruction of culture captures both the phenomenon of long duration processes, as well as those that are emergent. (shrink)

Traditionally, political legitimacy has been associated exclusively with states. But are states actually legitimate? And why should discussions of legitimacy focus only on the nation-state? This volume explores how legitimacy is intertwined with notions of statehood and how it reaches beyond the state into supranational institutions.

van Benthem [1] introduces a variant of Lambek Syntactic Calculus , proposed by Lambek [6], we call the variant Lambek-van Benthem Calculus . As proved by van Benthem, LBC is complete with respect to a semantics of λ-terms. In this note we indicate other relevant properties of LBC , just supporting some expectations of van Benthem. Given a countable set P r, of primitive types, the set T p, of types, is the smallest one such that: T p contains P (...) r, if x, y are in T p then is in T p. The variables x, y, z will range over types. Expressions X → x are to be called reduction formulas. (shrink)

Traditional martial arts continue to be interesting and inspiring to many people around the globe. Some of their contemporary adaptations attract enthusiasts for whom they are especially important. In this article, the author bases his observations on his own long-term participation. The analysis takes into account the influence of the perspectives of Jigoro Kano and several other creators of modern varieties of Japanese budo. It can be concluded that regular, even daily, practice—cultivating martial arts and internalizing its values—co-creates the lifestyle (...) of instructors and advanced students. (shrink)

Well-being is becoming an increasingly popular issue in economics. The aim of the article is to present the concept of well-being and the methods of its measurement and to examine the statistical significance between the results obtained by specific indicators. The article was written based on the meta-analysis of the books and scientific papers on the subject, as well as well-being and welfare measurement reports. The study shows that there is a very wide range of theories and concepts related to (...) well-being which are sometimes exceptive. The most important conclusion from the study is that the correlation between welfare and well-being represented respectively by GDP and HDI is very strong, while the correlation between welfare and life satisfaction as well as well-being and subjective well-being are negligible. (shrink)

Game theory is a branch of mathematics that studies strategic interactions, i.e., interactions which involve more than one agent and in which each agent makes her/his decision while striving to predict the decisions of other agents. Game theory has been successfully applied in many areas of both the natural and social sciences, and it is the belief of this book's author that it can also be gainfully invoked in the area of legal philosophy. In this book, Wojciech Zaluski analyzes (...) legal-philosophical concepts - such as legal interpretation, justice, legal rights, contract law, tort law, and property law - through the lens of game theory. The book appeals mainly to game theory's conceptual rather than the technical side, and intertwines game-theoretical analysis with the philosophical. It will be accessible to a wider circle of readers interested in legal and moral philosophy. (shrink)