I propose a novel hyperintensional semantics for belief revision and a corresponding system of dynamic doxastic logic. The main goal of the framework is to reduce some of the idealisations that are common in the belief revision literature and in dynamic epistemic logic. The models of the new framework are primarily based on potentially incomplete or inconsistent collections of information, represented by situations in a situation space. I propose that by shifting the representational focus of doxastic models from belief sets (...) to collections of information, and by defining changes of beliefs as artifacts of changes of information, we can achieve a more realistic account of belief representation and belief change. The proposed dynamic operation suggests a non-classical way of changing beliefs: belief revision occurs in non-explosive environments which allow for a non-monotonic and hyperintensional belief dynamics. A logic that is sound with respect to the semantics is also provided. (shrink)

Emotion regulation is an umbrella term to describe interactive, goal-dependent explicit and implicit processes that are intended to help an individual manage and shift an emotional experience. The primary window for appropriate emotion regulation development occurs during the infant, toddler, and preschool years. Atypical emotion regulation development is considered a risk factor for mental health problems and has been implicated as a primary mechanism underlying childhood pathologies. Current treatments are predominantly verbal- and behavioral-based and lack the opportunity to practice in-the-moment (...) management of emotionally charged situations. There is also an absence of caregiver-child interaction in these treatment strategies. Based on behavioral and neural support for music as a therapeutic mechanism, the incorporation of intentional music experiences, facilitated by a music therapist, may be one way to address these limitations. Musical Contour Regulation Facilitation is an interactive therapist-child music-based intervention for emotion regulation development practice in preschoolers. The Musical Contour Regulation Facilitation intervention uses the deliberate contour and temporal structure of a music therapy session to mirror the changing flow of the caregiver-child interaction through the alternation of high arousal and low arousal music experiences. The purpose of this paper is to describe the Therapeutic Function of Music, a theory-based description of the structural characteristics for a music-based stimulus to musically facilitate developmentally appropriate high arousal and low arousal in-the-moment emotion regulation experiences. The Therapeutic Function of Music analysis is based on a review of the music theory, music neuroscience, and music development literature and provides a preliminary model of the structural characteristics of the music as a core component of the Musical Contour Regulation Facilitation intervention. (shrink)

The Twenty-first Century will be the age of information, a century only those societies that reach to and produce information can achieve success. The individuals of this century must have along with the basic skill, the new and significant qualifications of problemsolving, learning how to think, creative thinking, decision-making, research and assume responsibility of one’s knowledge as active subjects. Therefore we have to teach our students how to think. Education of thinking is the education of philosophy. One has to be (...) taught in philosophy in order to learn thinking. Only an adequate philosophy education can create individuals with above qualifications. Such an education has to be supported by both the curricular and extra-curricular activities. This article will review these two dimensions of the philosophy education in particular on Turkey example and assert the contribution thereof on the philosophy education. (shrink)

The status of wild capture fisheries has induced many fisheries and conservation scientists to express concerns about the concept of using forage fish after reduction to fishmeal and fish oil, as feed for farmed animals, particularly in aquaculture. However, a very large quantity of forage fish is being also used untransformed (fresh or frozen) globally for other purposes, such as the pet food industry. So far, no attempts have been made to estimate this quantum, and have been omitted in previous (...) fishmeal and fish oil exploitation surveys. On the basis of recently released data on the Australian importation of fresh or frozen fish for the canned cat food industry, here we show that the estimated amount of raw fishery products directly utilized by the cat food industry equates to 2.48 million metric tonnes per year. This estimate, plus the previously reported global fishmeal consumption for the production of dry pet food suggest that 13.5% of the total 39.0 million tonnes of wild caught forage fish is used for purposes other than human food production. This study attempts to bring forth information on the direct use of fresh or frozen forage fish in the pet food sector that appears to have received little attention to this date and that needs to be considered in the global debate on the ethical nature of current practices on the use of forage fish, a limited biological resource. (shrink)

Thagard presented a framework for conceptual change in science based on conceptual systems. Thagard challenged belief revision theorists, claiming that traditional belief-revision systems are able to model only the two most conservative types of changes in his framework, but not the more radical ones. The main aim of this work is to take up Thagard’s challenge, presenting a belief-revision-like system able to mirror radical types of conceptual change. We will do that with a conceptual revision system, i.e. a belief-revision-like system (...) that takes conceptual structures as units of revisions. We will show how our conceptual revision and contraction operations satisfy analogous of the AGM postulates at the conceptual level and are able to mimic Thagard’s radical types of conceptual change. (shrink)

The narratives about Khadija in Islamic History sources may be very divided. One of these subjecs is Khadija’s children. Besides there is little information about her daughters, accounts about her sons are diversified. This article approaches the narratives in İslamic History sources about Khadija’s sons.

The importance of “brand dilution” is changing with the rise in internet-mediated consumer power and increasing consumer involvement in the brand identity and message creation processes. In light of recent legal rulings, this study re-conceptualizes brand dilution as a matter of counter-posed brand meanings and associations in digital markets. Anti-branding dilution cases from both a blurring and a tarnishment dilution basis are examined through consumer interviews. The results show that consumer anti-branding has less potential for brand dilution, and more potential (...) for brand identity collusion. By addressing both legal and marketing views of the meaning systems associated with the dilution versus collusion perspectives, this study provides an approach for understanding anti-branding dilution discussions and a way to develop better functioning branding exchange systems for digital markets. Consequently, possible changes in future branding ownership issues for digital markets are envisioned. (shrink)

Bu makalede Necmeddin Kâtibî ile Nasreddin Tûsî arasında teselsülün imkânı/imkânsızlığı konusunda gerçekleşen yazılı bir münâzara analiz edilmiştir. Bu münâzarada, klasik dönemde teselsülün imkânsızlığına dair İslam düşünürleri tarafından öne sürülen en meşhur delillerden üçü ele alınmıştır. Bu deliller klasik İslam düşüncesinde burhân-ı arşî, burhân-ı tatbîk ve burhân-ı tezâyüf adıyla bilinen delillerdir. Kâtibî, bu delillere karşı itirazlarını ortaya koymak için hocası Tûsî’ye bir mektup yazmış, bu mektubunda öncelikle teselsülün imkânsızlığına dair öne sürülen bu delilleri takrir etmiş, daha sonra bu delillere karşı itirazlarını (...) sıralamıştır. Bunun üzerine Tûsî, Kâtibî’nin bu itirazlarına oldukça doyurucu ve ikna edici cevaplar vermiştir. Hocasının açıklamaları neticesinde ikna olan Kâtibî, münâzara sonucunda teselsülün imkansızlığına dair klasik dönemde ortaya koyulan bu delillerin geçerliliğini Tûsî’nin açıklamaları bağlamında kabul etmiş ve son bir itiraf mektubu yazarak bu kabulünü dile getirmiştir. Tûsî’nin bu itirafa cevap olarak teşekkür ve takdir sadedinde yazdığı son mektupla münâzara sona ermiştir. (shrink)

When we look at a single example in the comparison of the West and the East, the ban on minarets in Switzerland or the absence of any churches in Saudi Arabia leads to incorrect conclusions. Such ideological selectivity hinders the model of coexistence. In this research study, we mentioned the possibilities, needs and minimum requirements of a coexistence model beyond the Ummah. We perform firstly (1) the description or diagnosis of the given situation, namely the determination of the problem: the (...) political or historical, theological and cultural sources, and origin of the problem; (2) the expansion of the given situation to the paradigm from the history, the spirit of the times, theological sources and principles; and (3) solution: updating the theological, political and cultural displacements and applying them in the current context. Contribution: This is the thesis of this paper: humans have enough theological, political, cultural and educational possibilities for a new global Convivencia for being able to realise ‘together and common living’. Humans have the theological, political and cultural opportunities to realise a new global Convivencia ‘living together even if not in unison’ for the future. (shrink)

Dissertação: SANTOS, George Harrison Sena. Religiosidade e Educação: Rap mineiro em perspectiva de libertação. 2014. Dissertação , Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Religião, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte.

Os desafios evidenciados pela universalização dos direitos por meio do acesso à universidade mercantilista, que excede a questão da origem popular e/ou da tradicional oposição homogeneidade cultural versus heterogeneidade, colocam um conjunto de vicissitudes para o professor, que interroga a si mesmo e que considera digno ou ignóbil endereçar sua palavra professoral aos destinatários com o objetivo de possibilitar a vivência de uma experiência formativa. O nosso problema, como sociedade brasileira, consiste no fato de que instalamos nacionalmente o imaginário de (...) que alguns são mais capazes, enquanto outros estão impossibilitados em razão de suas origens. Essa fantasia tanto orienta os professores, por meio de um raciocínio baseado em um apartheid sociopsicopedagógico, como serve de fundamento para algumas políticas inspiradas no caráter de exceção. Como resultado, são excluídas a dimensão desejante do professor e a implicação subjetiva do aluno em sua passagem pela experiência da vida universitária. (shrink)

This essay is a think piece that takes a labor and capital perspective on science to discuss two chief concepts: credit and exploitation. Credit, as the symbolic currency of science, has been central to how we understand the moral workings of science in the twentieth century. But our lived experience of changes in the political economy of science also alerts us to the notion that credit may not be applicable to a robust analysis of science in the past and in (...) the present. Scientific exploitation, the evidence of which usually prompts an effort to redistribute credit, may offer only a partial picture of the labor structure of science. Self-exploitation, an implicit understanding of how scientists may approach their work, has never been fully articulated but is nevertheless a useful descriptive notion. (shrink)

A transferência de informação se estabelece em uma área de conhecimento muito extensa e envolve vários meios de comunicação. Nesse sentido, o presente artigo tem como objetivo conhecer os impactos no processo da transferência da informação no contexto da Ciência Aberta (CA). Trata-se de uma pesquisa descritiva que utiliza-se como referencial teórico clássicos da Ciência da Informação para assim discutir características, aspectos e as repercussões ocasionadas pelo surgimento da Ciência Aberta. A pesquisa mostra que embora a transferência da informação seja (...) uma ação humana, no âmbito da CA, o foco é referente aos dados que geram a informação, em especial os dados científicos e/ou dados de pesquisa com a finalidade de torná-los abertos (dados digitais abertos). Assim, cria-se uma relação das etapas da transferência da informação destacadas por Shannon e Weaver (transmissor, canal, mensagem, receptor) com a perspectiva da Ciência Aberta, destacando os impactos políticos, sociais, econômicos e científicos. (shrink)

Divine revelation (waḥy), as a Qur'anic and religious concept in exegetical sources, isusually mentioned together with the institution of Prophethood (nubuwwa). Revelation came to itsend with the end of Prophethood. Therefore, although some have evaluated inspiration (ilhām) andtrue dream (ruʾyā sādiqa) within the this context of revelation, according to most of Islamic scholars,it is not permissible to refer to the recevings of the divinely saints as revelation. Revelation, for whichthe holy Qur'an designates three pattern of descension, is discussed also in (...) three categoriesthroughout the history of Islamic intellectual thought. Scholars of tafsir and theologians,philosophers, and mystics, all hold and bolster different views on the nature of revelation. Claims inSufi literature that inspiration can descend to divinely saints -beyond immediate delivery to theheart- through direct or indirect divine communication from behind a veil and through angles can beevaluated as an effort to create a conception of revelation that corresponds to the three modes ofrevelation, adressed in Qur’an, peculiar to prophets. With regard to the issue of continuity of divine revelation, a thorough examination of the Sufiliterature leads to the conclusion that revelation continues to decsend in its verbal form asinspiration but also, according to some Sufi authorities, in its noun forms unaniously considered aspeculiar to the prophets. Therefore, especially since the period of Sufism’s intermingling withphilosophy, the issues of accommdating sainthood (walāya) within the framework of generalprophethood (nubuwwa ʿāmme), the distinction between revelation and inspiration and itscontinuity appear as a very complex, unframed and unlimited field. This can be observed in theinstances addressed in this study. (shrink)

Most literature about vaccine hesitancy has been focused on parental attitudes. Less attention has been devoted to both scientists and experts who raise criticism about immunization policies and intervene in the public debate. This consideration aims to balance the current emphasis in the literature on parents’ attitudes about vaccination, offering a complementary angle to reframe and widen the controversy. Focusing on scientists and experts, an unattended complex picture of multiple attitudes towards vaccines and vaccinations has been discovered through a qualitative (...) content analysis of texts related to the harsh public debate, held between March 2017 and November 2018, triggered by the legislative proposal of making ten vaccinations mandatory for children. Unlike oversemplications that misleading dichotomies reproduce, the analysis reveals nine different positions along the continuum of immunisation attitudes, ranging from radical acceptance of vaccinations to radical rejection, which constitute a fuzzy set. Consequently, a twofold reality emerges: on the surface, the conflict seems between pro-vaxxers versus hesitant, pro-choice and anti-vaxxers; beneath it is amid standardized versus a varieties of contextual and personalised approaches to health. (shrink)

Os PCN e o Programa Educação para o Pensar podem colaborar singularmente para a prática do ensino de matemática, uma vez que objetivam desenvolver no aluno um espírito crítico e uma atenção ao contexto no qual se inserem.

Resumen El objetivo principal del artículo es terminar quién es el Dasein desde el aparecer del mundo en la obra de Martin Heidegger Ser y tiempo. Para ello, se plantea la posibilidad de aprehensión del horizonte del sí mismo del Dasein, en contra de los propios análisis heideggerianos sobre el uno, y, también, se muestra de qué manera la mismidad del Dasein se presupone ya en el modo de aparición del mundo-entorno a través del existenciario significatividad. La conclusión del artículo (...) intentará descubrir los posibles rendimientos fenomenológicos de la apertura del horizonte del sí-mismo del Dasein.The main goal of the paper is to determine who is the Dasein itself from the appearance of the world in the Book of Martin Heidegger Being and time. For this, it raises the possibility of understanding the horizon of the self of Dasein itself differently to Heidegger’s analysis about the they and also it shows how the Selfhood of Dasein is presupposed already in the appearance of the world-environment through the existential meaningfulness. The conclusion of this paper will try to discover the phenomenological yields of Dasein’s openness as horizon of its Selfhood. (shrink)

En la última década en la Argentina se implementaron una serie de políticas sociales denominadas socio-productivas, socio-laboral y socio-económicas con el objeto de mejorar la situación de desempleo o precariedad laboral de la población. Las mismas pueden considerarse un modo de compensación de los efectos de exclusión del régimen de producción y acumulación vigente. En este contexto en el año 2009 nace el Plan “Ingreso Social con Trabajo” desde el Ministerio de Desarrollo Social, que declara tener como objetivo generar puestos (...) de trabajo genuino, con igualdad de oportunidades, fundado en el trabajo organizado y comunitario, incentivando e impulsando la formación de organizaciones sociales de trabajadores, quienes tendrán a su cargo el desarrollo de las acciones. El presente artículo intentará analizar dichos objetivos a partir del relato de destinatarias del Plan, revisando tres conceptos claves: cooperativas, trabajo e inclusión. (shrink)

Although most researchers are familiar with the application of the Common Rule in research, fewer are aware of specific requirements and restrictions for conducting human subjects research when employees of the US Department of Defense (DoD) will be participants. Because of the additional regulations concerning DoD employees as participants, federal regulations and research policies require researchers to submit their human subjects research proposals through a DoD review process to ensure compliance with DoD research policies, regardless of a non-DoD IRB’s approval. (...) These research policies recognize the vulnerability of military subjects within a hierarchical organization to potential coercion and abuse during research studies. This article describes some of the unique requirements to conduct human subjects research within the DoD (in which the participants are military or civilian). The article concludes with steps researchers can follow to facilitate the DoD review process for research, and timely research within the DoD. (shrink)

Şiî halk dindarlığının en güçlü unsuru Muharrem ayında icra edilen matem merasimleridir. Muharrem matemi ve benzeri dinî merasimler Şiî Müslümanlara İmam Hüseyin başta olmak üzere On İki İmam’la olan bağlarını tazeleme ve toplumsal hafızalarını canlı tutma imkânı vermektedir. Bireysel dindarlığın önemli bir bileşenini oluşturan bu merasimler aynı zamanda kapsamlı bir toplumsal ve siyasî muhtevaya sahiptir. Bunun günümüz İran’ındaki en önemli örneği, merasimleri icra etmek için bir araya gelmiş insanlardan müteşekkil dinî heyetlerdir. Fütüvvet geleneğinin etkilerinin görüldüğü dinî heyetler, modern dönemde İran (...) toplumunun ürettiği özgün bir fenomendir. Heyetlerin düzenlediği dinî meclislerde farklı ekonomik ve sosyal sınıflara ait kimseler ortak bir platformda buluşmakta, böylece dayanışma ve yardımlaşma ağı inşa etmektedir. Heyetler, sivil ve gayri resmî olmaları sebebiyle hareket kabiliyeti yüksek ve dinamik yapılardır. Bu dinamiklik İran İslâm Devrimi ve sonrasında da İran-Irak savaşında kilit bir rol oynamalarını sağlamıştır. Toplumsal şartlar değiştikçe heyetler de değişime uğramış, bu durum yönetimin heyetleri kontrol altına almak istemesine sebep olmuştur. Bu çalışma heyetlerin tarihsel ve dinî kökenlerini, yapısını, işlevlerini ve siyasetle ilişkisini konu edinerek, halk dindarlığının toplumsal ve siyasal etki gücünü ortaya koymaktadır. (shrink)

Este relato de experiência apresenta resultados da pesquisa sobre a Saúde em Santo Amaro: a partir dos saberes tradicionais das rezadeiras/benzedeiras que teve por objetivo analisar as práticas medicinais e espirituais com o sagrado. A pesquisa etnográfica foi realizada com as rezadeiras, dessa forma, estabelecendo fronteiras com os rituais de cura, fé e devoção, nos processos de aprendizagem, aos mais variados tipos de doenças, as rezas e as curas, sendo assim, realizadas por elas. As rezadeiras/benzedeiras são mulheres cujo valor histórico, (...) tornando-se as suas benzeduras símbolo de resistência humana, na sua prática sobre as benzeduras. Entretanto, vale fomentar na pesquisa, sobretudo, as suas práticas também estão relacionadas a conhecimentos católicos, indígena, africana, com seus “cânticos” e “rezas” religiosas, trazendo consigo o desejo da fé de resultar o seu trabalho por alcances estabelecidos nas suas práticas reverenciadas assim as pessoas que procuram por elas. O objeto é tentar caminhar ao longo da história, em conjunto com as práticas religiosas, percebendo as inúmeras implicações produzidas pela sociedade. O contexto etnográfico da pesquisa foi na cidade de Santo Amaro. Palavras-chave: Saúde, Benzedeira, Espiritualidade. (shrink)

O presente artigo visa discutir a problemática filosófica do tempo a partir das perspectivas dos filósofos Empédocles e Kant, enfatizando o caráter cíclico do primeiro e as condições subjetivas de realização da temporalidade do segundo. Com isso, pretende-se não somente enfatizar a acuidade organizativa de seu conceito, como também verificar de que modo esses aspectos dialogam com expressões significativas temporais da contemporaneidade, em que se destaca o pensamento do filósofo francês Bernard Stiegler, para quem as mudanças socioeconômicas são de relevância (...) precípua para a constituição de uma nova perspectiva temporal, dessa vez regida por elementos externos que ameaçam decisivamente a individualidade dos diversos sujeitos. (shrink)

I. Dünya Savaşı’nın başlaması üzerine İngiltere, ülkesinde bulunan Müttefik Devletler’in vatandaşlarını tutuklamaya başlamış, ardından da bunları sivil esir olarak çeşitli yerlere sevk etmişti. Tutukluların sayısı artınca modern dünyanın ilk ve en büyük sivil esir kampı olan Knockaloe oluşturulmuştu. Söz konusu kampta tutuklu bulunan kişilerden biri de Londra Sefareti Eski Kâtibi Reşid Sadi Bey idi. Londra’daki İsveç Elçisi Herman Wrangel, aldıkları dilekçelerde esirlerin kötü muameleye maruz kaldığını ve ekonomik da olarak her geçen gün biraz daha zorlandıklarını Osmanlı hükümetine bildirmişti. Bunun üzerine (...) Osmanlı Hariciye Nezareti, İsveç Sefareti vasıtasıyla vatandaşlarının sorunlarıyla ilgilenirken mütekabiliyet ilkesini uygulamaktan geri durmamıştır. Bu çalışmadaki amaç: uluslararası literatürdeki “sivil esir” kavramının İngiltere tarafından başlatıldığını vurgulayıp bu bağlamda Reşid Sadi Bey’in esaret öyküsünü değerlendirmektir. Ayrıca siyasi tarih perspektifinden Knockaloe’daki sivil Osmanlı esirlerini ve Londra Sefareti Eski Kâtibi Reşid Sadi Bey’in serbest bırakılması için yürütülen diplomasi faaliyetlerine yer vermektir. (shrink)

Özet Hz. Peygamber’in her hâlini bizzat müşahede edecek kadar yakın ve Kur’ân’ın ilk muhatapları olan sahabe neslinin örnek hayatı ve ilmi kişilikleri hakkında çalışmak, bilgi edinmek, Kur’ân’ı ve Rasûlullah’ı doğru anlamanın temel yöntemini teşkil eder. Abdullah ibn Mes’ûd, ilmi yönden zengin birikime sahip ve yaşantısı bakımından farklı bir kişiliği vardır. Müslüman olduktan sonra Rasulullah’ın yanından hiç ayrılmayan, her türlü hizmetinde bulunan, öyleki ehl-i beytten fark edilmeyecek kadar O’na yakın olan İbn Mesʿud, aynı zamanda hemen hemen bütün savaşlarda Rasulullah’ın yanında bulunmaktan (...) geri durmayan diğer taraftan Resulullh’tan sonra da Kur’ân ve İslâm’a hizmet eden ve müslümanları eğiten bir muallimdir. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’e ve Arapçaya olan vukûfiyeti, başta kıraat olmak üzere tefsir, hadis ve fıkıh ilmine dâir derin bilgisiyle öne çıkmış ve isim yapmış olan Abdullah ibn Mes’ûd Rasulullah’ın övgüsüne mazhar olmuş ashabın büyüklerindendir. Abdullah ibn Mes’ûd’un Kur’ân’ın nüzûlünün neredeyse tamamına şahit olması ve Peygamber’in yakınında bulunması, Kur’ân ve Kıraat ilimler açısından çok önemlidir. Abdullah İbn Mesʿud’un kıraatı iki gruptan oluşmaktadır. Birincisi hemen birçok kıraat-ı aşere imamının senetlerinde yer alan ve üzerinde ittifak edilen sahih kıraatler, ikincisi de müfessirlerin tefsirlerinde ele aldıkları ve tefsir kabilinden izahatları, dil bakımından istişhadda bulundukları, ihticac için kullandığı veya sadece müteradif olarak ele aldığı ifadeleridir. Bu çalışmada kıraatini bizzat Hz. Peygamber’den alan İbn Mes’ûd’un kıraat ilmini elde ettiği yol ve alanları irdelenmiştir. Özellikle onun Hz. Peygamber’den Kur’ân tâʿlimi, Allah Rasûlu ve Cebrail’in katılımıyla gerçekleşen Kur’ân’ın arzına katıldığını söylemesi, genelde İslâmî ilimlere özelde Kıraat’a yaptığı katkı, cem, istinsah ve Mushaflar konusundaki tutumu, ashâbın onun kıraati hakkındaki sözleri ve görüşleri gibi konuları incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Sonuç olarak birçok ilim dalında söz sahibi olduğu gibi Kıraat ilminde de imam olan büyük sahabi Abdullah ibn Mesʿdun kıratinin mahiyeti hakkında bilgi verilmiştir. (shrink)

Abstrack In this study, the subject of preference, its conceptual field and its historical process, as well as the methods of determining and choosing different readings of mutawatir recitation imâms are discussed. The different phrasing of the Qur'an began from the revelation period of the revelation. It is seen that there were some discussions about the different readings of the Qur'an among the Companions in the early period, albeit a little. These different recitations of some of the Companions, who see (...) their own reading better or who are not aware of their friends' readings, are the Prophet's. The fact that they took them to the Prophet indicates this. As a matter of fact, Allah's command to "read whatever is easy from the Qur'an" (Muzzammil, 73/20) and the hadith of the Messenger of Allah "read whatever is easy from it", together with the different reading license, also implicate his preference. Arab tribes who used different dialects from the Quraysh dialect during the Medina period and those who converted to Islam from other non-Arab nations faced some difficulties in pronouncing and understanding the Qur'an, which was revealed in the Quraysh dialect. Wanting to solve this serious problem, Hz. Prophet was given the permission to read with seven letters, the differences in recitation began to be seen. The concepts of preference and elder refer to the practices of the imams of recitation in the process of creating their own recitations together with their proofs, which they chose from among the recitations of their predecessors. In the science of hujjat, the most used concepts, along with other concepts, are the concepts of old age, preference and need. Ihticaj is a concept that expresses choosing one among different recitations by citing evidences and proofs. As a matter of fact, when the works of the recitation scholars on this subject are examined, it is seen that the imâms made their choices by citing evidence from the Qur'an, Sunnah, Mushafs and language rules regarding the differences in recitation. In the science of recitation, some other concepts such as ulema, especially proof, and illet and evidence were also used. Whether it is the Qurra that stands out in the field of natural recitation, or the imams of mutawatir recitation, they have formed their preferences by bringing evidence from verses, sunnah, mushaf, saned and language in line with the criteria of sound recitation. (shrink)

“Jesus” constitutes the main element of Christian life. Therefore, Christianity is perceived as a Jesus-centered religion. This perception, from the birth of Jesus to his resurrection, clearly reveals itself both in the Christian faith, Christian worship and Iconography. Because, according to Christians, the birth of Jesus is the beginning of the salvation of mankind. The birth of Jesus, which contains a process, was celebrated as a Christmas Festival in Christianity. Christmas is a combination of the words “Noiono, Noio, Neos” and (...) the concepts “hed, hel, Helios”. These words mean “first day, new day of the month” or “new sun”. Today, Christmas has an important place in Christian life as folkloric. In this component, Santa Claus, pine tree and turkey have an important role. The birth of Jesus was reflected in iconography. The birth scene of Jesus was included in the iconography, and it was one of the icons of the twelve yortou (dodekaorthon). In this context, icons are important (especially for Orthodox Christians). The concept of icon comes from the Greek words “eikon, eikein”. In the iconography the birth of Jesus have the birth of Mary, the visit of Elizabeth, the dream of Joseph and the angel to Joseph, the census, the birth of Jesus, the good news of the shepherds and the worship of Kings. The concepts related to icons within these stages were analyzed. In this article, the importance of birth of Jesus in Christian life and iconography is revealed. Then, the birth of Jesus as a holiday has been discussed. And this birth was interpreted in iconographic terms. (shrink)