ENTREVISTA COM PROFISSIONAIS DA FILOSOFIA QUE ATUAM EM PROJETOS – BLOCO IICom: Andrea Dantas, Emerson Praciano, Freddy Costa, Maria Celeste de SousaPor: Antônio Alex Pereira de Sousa, Paulo Willame Araújo de Lima.

Da Costa and French explore the consequences of adopting a 'pragmatic' notion of truth in the philosophy of science. Their framework sheds new light on issues to do with belief, theory acceptance, and the realism-antirealism debate, as well as the nature of scientific models and their heuristic development.

As systems based on opaque Artificial Intelligence (AI) continue to flourish in diverse real-world applications, understanding these black box models has become paramount. In response, Explainable AI (XAI) has emerged as a field of research with practical and ethical benefits across various domains. This paper not only highlights the advancements in XAI and its application in real-world scenarios but also addresses the ongoing challenges within XAI, emphasizing the need for broader perspectives and collaborative efforts. We bring together experts from diverse (...) fields to identify open problems, striving to synchronize research agendas and accelerate XAI in practical applications. By fostering collaborative discussion and interdisciplinary cooperation, we aim to propel XAI forward, contributing to its continued success. Our goal is to put forward a comprehensive proposal for advancing XAI. To achieve this goal, we present a manifesto of 27 open problems categorized into nine categories. These challenges encapsulate the complexities and nuances of XAI and offer a road map for future research. For each problem, we provide promising research directions in the hope of harnessing the collective intelligence of interested stakeholders. (shrink)

Relativity theory is often said to support something called ‘the four-dimensional view of reality’. But there are at least three different views that sometimes go by this name. One is ‘spacetime unitism’, according to which there is a spacetime manifold, and if there are such things as points of space or instants of time, these are just spacetime regions of different sorts: thus space and time are not separate manifolds. A second is the B-theory of time, according to which the (...) past, present, and future are all equally real and there is nothing metaphysically special about the present. A third is perdurantism, according to which persisting material objects are made up of different temporal parts located at different times. We sketch routes from relativity to unitism and to the B-theory. We then discuss some routes to perdurantism, via the B-theory and via unitism. (shrink)

The relatively new practice of continuous sedation at the end of life (CS) is increasingly being debated in the clinical and ethical literature. This practice received much attention when a U.S. Supreme Court ruling noted that the availability of CS made legalization of physician-assisted suicide (PAS) unnecessary, as CS could alleviate even the most severe suffering. This view has been widely adopted. In this article, we perform an in-depth analysis of four versions of this ?argument of preferable alternative.? Our goal (...) is to determine the extent to which CS can be considered to be an alternative to PAS and to identify the grounds, if any, on which CS may be ethically preferable to PAS. (shrink)

Until recently, an almost perfect parallelism seemed to hold between theories of identity through time and across possible worlds,as every account in the temporal case(endurantism,perdurantism, exdurantism) was mirrored by a twin account in the modal case (trans-world identity, identity-via-parts, identity-via-counterparts). Nevertheless, in the recent literature, this parallelism has been broken because of the implementation in the debate of the relation of location. In particular, endurantism has been subject to a more in-depth analysis, and different versions of it, corresponding to different (...) ways an entity can be located in time, emerged. In this article, we provide a precise map of the conceptions at stake, complete the debate by introducing a version of endurantism not yet considered in the debate — we call transcendentism — and show that it allows us to provide an effective interpretation of the relation of trans-world identity and an intuitive solution in the temporal case. (shrink)

This study investigates whether the market valuation of the two summary accounting measures, book value of equity and net income, is higher for firms with reputation for sustainability leadership, when compared to firms that do not enjoy such reputation. The results are interpreted through the lens of a framework combining signalling theory and resource-based theory, according to which firms signal their commitment to sustainability to influence the external perception of reputation. A firm’s reputation for being committed to sustainability is an (...) intangible resource that can increase the value of a firm’s expected cash flows and/or reduce the variability of its cash flows. Our findings are according to expectations and show that the net income of firms with good sustainability reputation has a higher valuation by the market, when compared to their counterparts. (shrink)

Universal logic is to logic what universal algebra is to algebra. It is not a specific system of logic that would apply to everything but a general theory of all existing and possible logics. This new field has been slowly emerging through the new directions of research in logic of the past decades and the name was coined 15 years ago. In the Spring of 2005 was organized in Montreux, Switzerland, the First World Congress on Universal Logic. This exciting event (...) gathered more than 200 people from about 40 different countries. Many famous logicians were present there, such as Dov Gabbay, Krister Segerberg, Saul Kripke, Michael Dunn, Jouko Väännänen. Most of the papers in this book arose from talks - and discussions that follow - presented during this event. They are concerned with philosophical and historical approaches discussing the basic concepts of logic and reflecting the meaning of a universal approach to logic, the development and elaboration of general tools in order to construct frameworks useful for studying classes of logics, applications of logics to concrete problems through the universal perspective. (shrink)

S. Jakowski introduced the discussive prepositional calculus D 2as a basis for a logic which could be used as underlying logic of inconsistent but nontrivial theories (see, for example, N. C. A. da Costa and L. Dubikajtis, On Jakowski's discussive logic, in Non-Classical Logic, Model Theory and Computability, A. I. Arruda, N. C. A da Costa and R. Chuaqui edts., North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1977, 37–56). D 2has afterwards been extended to a first-order predicate calculus and to a higher-order logic (...) (cf. the quoted paper). In this paper we present a natural version of D 2, in the sense of Jakowski and Gentzen; as a consequence, we suggest a new formulation of the discussive predicate calculus (with equality). A semantics for the new calculus is also presented. (shrink)

The mathematical concept of pragmatic truth, first introduced in Mikenberg, da Costa and Chuaqui (1986), has received in the last few years several applications in logic and the philosophy of science. In this paper, we study the logic of pragmatic truth, and show that there are important connections between this logic, modal logic and, in particular, Jaskowski's discussive logic. In order to do so, two systems are put forward so that the notions of pragmatic validity and pragmatic truth can (...) be accommodated. One of the main results of this paper is that the logic of pragmatic truth is paraconsistent. The philosophical import of this result, which justifies the application of pragmatic truth to inconsistent settings, is also discussed. (shrink)

This study provides empirical evidence on how corporate sustainability performance (CSP), as proxied by membership of the Dow Jones sustainability index, is reflected in the market value of equity. Using a theoretical framework combining institutional perspectives, stake-holder theory, and resource-based perspectives, we develop a set of hypotheses that relate the market value of equity to CSP. For a sample of North American firms, our preliminary results show that CSP has significant explanatory power for stock prices over the traditional summary accounting (...) measures such as earnings and book value of equity. However, further analyses suggest that we should not focus on corporate sustainability itself. Our findings suggest that what investors really do is to penalize large profitable firms with low level of CSP. Firms with incentives to develop a high level of CSP not engaging on such strategy are, thus, penalized by the market. (shrink)

Reasonableness is a core normative concept in Philosophy for Children (P4C), an inquiry model of education that bridges reasoning, feeling and acting within a community. The concept of reasonableness dates back to Aristotle’s ethical notion of phronesis (1141b), and extends to logical (Gewirth 1983), social and political concerns of major contemporary thinkers (Rawls 2001; Rorty 2001). The development of the concept of reasonableness in P4C was part of the reconceptualization of rationality toward the end of the twentieth century, since Lipman (...) and Sharp were among those thinkers who elucidated and advocated the social conception of rationality offered by the pragmatists. Accordingly, in P4C the conception of reasonableness was highlighted as a cornerstone for the understanding of the notion of a community of inquiry (Splitter & Sharp 1995:6; Lipman 2003:22). (shrink)

The paper arises from a shared event that turned into an experience: the finding of a childlike piece of paper on our way to a conference about philosophy in schools and how it affects our educational ideas and research practices on listening to children. Triggered by the question of what it means to listen, we are led to the exercise of self-questioning inspired by some of the authors that have already written about the topic, specifically in the context of the (...) community of philosophical enquiry. The thinking unfolds with the telling of the story about the found piece of paper, crossing different layers of questioning and trying to keep the enquiry open for the readers: what is it that we do not know about listening to children? And to what extent might that, which we do not know, be the cause of biased and adultist practices? Is it necessary to return to what philosophy is and where one can find it inside the school environment? Is it already there when the adults arrive? Are we not listening to it? Or are there specific places for philosophical conversations, such as the classroom? Is philosophy also invited to the margins of those spaces? Who decides what counts as philosophical? It is not about answering questions and giving closure to our concerns as educators and researchers, but rather sharing with the readers how even in the least suspected place - an academic event about bringing philosophy to school - one might still not be listening to children. In returning to this self-questioning movement, we want to echo some of the troubling in the thinking and practices of listening in the so-called movement of Philosophy for/with Children: this for/with phenomenon, its politics and relations; some of the assumptions that might be present in the dilemmas in practice for educators and researchers; but also its aesthetics resonances, the sheer beauty of troubling, the (out of) tune of self-questioning, the questions it raises for us as researchers and the space of doubting and uncertainty it offers, like a hesitation or a breathing space. And perhaps, we wonder, it is in-between spaces, in its cracks and transitions, that important things can find their way into our thinking and conversations about childhood. Just like a piece of paper in a hotel room. (shrink)

We first state a few previously obtained results that lead to general undecidability and incompleteness theorems in axiomatized theories that range from the theory of finite sets to classical elementary analysis. Out of those results we prove several incompleteness theorems for axiomatic versions of the theory of noncooperative games with Nash equilibria; in particular, we show the existence of finite games whose equilibria cannot be proven to be computable.

We first state a few previously obtained results that lead to general undecidability and incompleteness theorems in axiomatized theories that range from the theory of finite sets to classical elementary analysis. Out of those results we prove several incompleteness theorems for axiomatic versions of the theory of noncooperative games with Nash equilibria; in particular, we show the existence of finite games whose equilibria cannot be proven to be computable.

O presente artigo tem como objetivo mostrar quais são os conceitos retóricos presentes em dois ensaios de Hannah Arendt, Filosofia e Política e Verdade e Política, a fim de explicitar a conturbada relação entre verdade filosófica e política, e como essa querela está relacionada ao modo de vida do filósofo. A retórica e a persuasão não eram em si um problema para o pensamento político de Hannah Arendt, porquanto uma vez que a retórica estivesse condicionada à amizade, ela se tornaria (...) um instrumento político e pedagógico importantíssimo para a manutenção da vida política. Por outro lado, o uso da retórica sem esse condicionamento deixava em evidência a fragilidade de tipos diferentes de verdade diante da opinião, entre elas a verdade filosófica, que embora não seja tão frágil quanto a verdade de fato, depende da preservação do espaço público e do livre uso do discurso. Por fim, demonstrar-se-á a solução desse conflito por meio da possibilidade de uma nova Filosofia Política, que tem como fio condutor o pensamento e a linguagem. (shrink)

A PARTIR DE UM DIÁLOGO COM ALGUMAS INTERPRETAÇÕES CONSAGRADAS DE NIETZSCHE, ESTE ARTIGO DEFENDE A CENTRALIDADE DA NOÇÃO DE INDIVÍDUO NO PERSPECTIVISMO NIETZSCHIANO, SUGERINDO COM ISSO A SUA FILIAÇÃO AO PROJETO CRÍTICO KANTIANO. TRATA-SE DE UMA LEITURA QUE SE DEIXOU INSPIRAR, EM GRANDE MEDIDA, NAS INTERPRETAÇÕES DE FRIEDRICH KAULBACH E ANTONIO MARQUES.

Seja nos manuais de história da filosofia, seja em estudos mais especializados sobre Kant, estamos habituados a pensar a construção de sua filosofia crítica a partir de duas grandes linhas de influência: de um lado, a tradição metafísica leibniz-wolffiana, em que o filósofo se teria formado, e, de outro, o empirismo britânico, sobretudo Hume, que, segundo a conhecida explicação do próprio Kant, o teria acordado de seu sono dogmático. O mais novo livro de Marco Sgarbi, La “Kritik der reinen Vernunft” (...) nel contesto della tradizione logica aristotelica [A “Crítica da razão pura” no contexto da tradição lógica aristotélica], publicado em 2010 pela prestigiosa casa editorial Georg Olms, propõe tirar-nos a nós, estudiosos da obra kantiana, desse antigo “sono dogmático”: segundo sua tese fundamental, Kant seria tão ou mais devedor do aristotelismo quanto do leibniz-wolffianismo ou do empirismo humiano. (shrink)

This book develops and applies a unified interpretation of John Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness in order to clarify the account of citizenship that Rawls relies upon, and the kind of educational policies that the state can legitimately pursue to promote social justice. Costa examines the role of the family as the "first school of justice" and its basic contribution to the moral and political development of children. It also argues that schools are necessary to supplement the education (...) that families provide, teaching the political virtues that support just social institutions. The book also examines the questions of whether civic education should aim at cultivating patriotic feelings, and how it should respond to the deep cultural pluralism of contemporary democratic societies. (shrink)

The apparently paradoxical nature of self-deception has attracted a great deal of controversy in recent years. Focussing on those aspects of the phenomenon which involve the holding of "contradictory" beliefs, it is our intention to argue that this presents no "paradox" if a non-classical, "paraconsistent", doxastic logic is adopted. (On such logics, see, for example, N. C. A. da Costa, 'On the theory of inconsistent formal systems', Notre Dame J Formal Logic 11(1974), 497-510, and A. I. Arruda, 'A survey (...) of paraconsistent logic', in A. I. Arruda, N. C. A da Costa and R Chuaqui, _Mathematical Logic in Latin America, North-Holland, 1984, pp. 1-41.). (shrink)

The expression “end of nature” has been coined by American environ-mentalist Bill McKibben is his 1989 famous book, The End of Nature. Since then, the philosophical implications of such an obituary have been explored, mainly on an ethical perspective over the environment. The conceptual end of nature is one of those implications, in the context of a post-naturalistic environmental philosophy. Our purpose is to build upon the ambiguities of “nature” and reframe some readings of the concept of “integrity” as a (...) guiding principle in the relation between human beings and the environment. (shrink)

Neste artigo intentamos empreender uma leitura do judaísmo antigo, ou veterotestamentário, em alguns de seus aspectos principais, à contraluz da visão maquiaveliana do papel da religião na organização e expansão do Estado. O primeiro passo desta empresa será dado ao expormos os traços fundantes e delineadores da tradição judaica antiga, principalmente nos livros que compõe o chamado velho testamento, demonstrando o uso da religião na ordenação e expansão do Estado, bem como na formação do indivíduo. Em um segundo momento demonstraremos (...) como se cria uma nova tradição judaica, influenciada e influenciadora do mundo grego antigo, logo no início da era cristã a qual será assimilada e explorada em seu viés místico no humanismo renascentista. Esta tradição judaico helenístico será a mais conhecida e assimilada nos círculos eruditos europeus da renascença. Por fim, buscaremos demonstrar como os traços constitutivos do judaísmo antigo, em detrimento ao judaísmo helenístico, podem ser lidos à luz da descrição maquiaveliana do papel da religião na organização e expansão do Estado e na formação do indivíduo. (shrink)

This paper discusses how Charles Taylor reconstructs the secular age. Taylor’s thesis is that the secular age can not be restricted to the idea of the exit of religion from the public sphere (secularity 1), nor can it only means the reduction of religious beliefs and practices (secularity 2). Taylor proposes a new reading of the secular age (secularity 3), in which the pluralism of believers and non-believers would be the best description for a world that is secularizing, but at (...) the same time, the doctrines of faith continue to influence people’s lifestyles. Taylor emphasizes that religion is still related to the formation of different identities, as it exercises, at the same time, a perspective of recognition of subjects, even in modern societies. In the final part of the paper, criticisms on Taylor’s philosophy are discussed, based on the theoretical proposals of Jürgen Habermas and Nancy Fraser. The methodology consisted of some of Taylor‘s works (mainly A Secular Age, as the key work of this article), as well as of its interpreters and scholars. (shrink)

O artigo objetiva investigar a relação entre secularismo e religião na sociedade burguesa à luz do problema da emancipação humana, a partir de escritos do jovem Marx, como, por exemplo, Sobre a Questão Judaica, Crítica da Filosofia do Direito de Hegel – Introdução, entre outros, que dizem respeito ao momento inicial de seu pensamento crítico; além de A Ideologia Alemã, obra posterior em que Marx retoma algumas das discussões iniciadas naquele período. A novidade trazida por Marx para o debate tradicional (...) entre secularismo versus religião é que tudo isso só pode ser pensado a partir da emancipação humana, e não apenas da emancipação política. A sobrevivência da religião na modernidade não significa um desvio da secularização na história moderna, uma traição à Filosofia das Luzes ou mesmo um antagonismo em relação à emancipação política. Ao contrário, ela é consequência de uma secularização que não enfrentou as contradições de uma sociedade capitalista. Por um lado, Marx considerava a religião o “ópio do povo”, e que toda crítica teria como modelo a crítica à religião. Por outro, entretanto, a religião não deixava de ser, ao mesmo tempo, um grito de revolta contra uma sociedade excludente e a miséria de um mundo. A hipótese, portanto, a ser investigada neste artigo é que a análise da religião, em Marx, não se reduz meramente a um anticlericalismo de sua época, uma vez que tem como horizonte a emancipação humana, e não apenas política. Não se trata, em Marx, de um simples combate entre as luzes e as trevas no plano das consciências, e, sim, acima de tudo, de uma crítica às contradições da sociedade burguesa. Marx não possui de forma sistematizada uma teoria crítica da religião. Deste modo, sistematizaremos determinadas discussões que Marx apresentou ao longo de seus escritos, objetivando investigar a problemática proposta neste artigo. (shrink)

Compreender em que medida a figura e a atuação de D. João Becker contribuiu na constituição de um ideal humano, tendo a educação como principal mecanismo para a sua efetivação, configurou-se na principal meta desta investigação. Para isso, examinou-se o período de 1913 a 1946, época em que D. João se constituiu na autoridade máxima da Igreja Católica no Rio Grande do Sul. Este estudo baseou-se numa pesquisa bibliográfica, enfatizando, sobretudo, a análise da documentação histórica referente ao acervo da revista (...) Unitas. O trabalho discute a formação de um ideal de homem e sociedade perfeitos veiculado pela revista, fundada por D. João Becker, em 1913. Do exame do referido periódico, sobressaem três categorias de análise: a educação, o homem e o sacerdote. Tais categorias preponderam ao se analisar a perspectiva católica no que tange à perfeição humana. D. João Becker configurou-se num dos grandes protagonistas da reestruturação da Igreja Católica Sul-Rio-Grandense. O artigo divide-se em duas partes: a primeira define o entendimento do conceito de perfeição humana para o Catolicismo, e a segunda pondera as três categorias destacadas. (shrink)

Este artigo tem como objetivo elucidar as diversas formas de violência vivenciadas pela população transgênera no Brasil, centrando-se nos desafios e nas dificuldades que encontram no âmbito educacional. Estudos comprovam reiterados processos de discriminação, ódio, preconceito e abandono familiar e social envolvendo esse grupo, o que o expõe a situações degradantes de vida e viola a Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos, construída sob a premissa de que a sociedade deve ser capaz de garantir justiça, vida e liberdade. Contudo, na contramão (...) desse tratado, a violência contra a população trans tem se manifestado em todos os espaços da sociedade brasileira de modo implícito e/ou explícito, reproduzindo-se nas instituições educacionais. Em que pese a natureza dessa instituição – locus por excelência do estímulo à pluralidade de ideias, culturas, jeitos de ser e fazer, portanto, lugar de encontro, acolhimento e formação humana – a escola tem reproduzido a cisnormatividade, ou seja, validando normas, regras e valores considerados adequados e normais pela sociedade burguesa, infringindo, dessa forma, o respeito à diversidade sexual e de gênero, à transgeneridade. Esse cenário requer esforços contínuos dos movimentos sociais, das instituições e da sociedade civil para garantir os direitos sociais e o respeito à população transgênera, além de nos provocar a seguir questionando as hipocrisias, criando transgressões e filosofando, como sugere Noel Rosa em sua composição “Filosofia”. Palavras-chave: Cisnormatividade. Violência. Desafios educacionais. População transgênera. (shrink)

Procuramos expor o pluralismo de leituras da obra freudiana mediante a exploração da hipótese de historicização da formação psíquica dos sujeitos, especialmente relativa ao complexo de Édipo e Supereu. Partindo da perspectiva de estudos feministas, verificamos no corpus teórico freudiano se há a possibilidade de que o avanço sócio-histórico seja um fator de modificação de concepções que, na leitura freudiana clássica, seriam lidas como imutáveis, fixas e rígidas cultural e historicamente. Madelon Sprengnether, Nancy Chodorow e Judith Butler serão retomadas para (...) criticar a leitura clássica e generalizante do complexo de Édipo enquanto “estrutural”, essencializado e substancializado. Sugerimos que, sendo uma lei hegemônica, a vivência edípica não pode ser completamente ultrapassada, mas pode ser performativamente atuada de formas desviantes de sua estrutura classicamente pensada por Freud. Nesse âmbito, a transmissão geracional é nosso enfoque primordial. Ela é debatida ao menos em três momentos complementares: na análise da filogênese, da herança arcaica e do Édipo social exposta em Totem e tabu, na herança narcísica de expectativas e ideais compreendida em Introdução ao narcisismo e na teoria da perpetuação de valores e tradições morais via identificações geracionais superegoicas que consta nas Novas Conferências sobre Psicanálise. (shrink)

A proposta desse trabalho é relacionar momentos do percurso investigativo de Heidegger, durante os anos 1920, a fim de descrever o que parece ser uma relação decisiva a partir da qual toda a arquitetura de Ser e tempo pode ser compreendida enquanto projeto filosófico, a saber: o nexo entre aquilo que o autor indica como o verdadeiro a priori da fenomenologia, a pergunta pelo sentido de ser e, finalmente, a necessidade de uma ontologia fundamental.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Hume Studies Volume XXIV, Number 1, April 1998, pp. 71-94 Hume on the Very Idea of a Relation MICHAEL COSTA I think it is a productive strategy in interpreting Hume's philosophy to examine very carefully exactly what constitutes for Hume the cognitive state of having a certain idea or belief. More often than not, interpretive pressures arise almost immediately when one comes to address the details in such (...) cases. Attempting to relieve these interpretive pressures can have substantial payoffs in understanding and evaluating Hume's philosophy, even when the attempts are not entirely successful.1 In this paper, I am going to raise the question, "What is the very idea of a relation for Hume?" which I will understand to mean, "What exactly constitutes the cognitive state of having an idea of a relation for Hume?" First I will argue for a particular account of what an idea of a relation must consist in for Hume. The account that I describe is essentially the same as one that has already been introduced by some recent work of Don Garrett,2 but I will offer here a new way of arriving at it. Also, I will examine in detail the capacity of the account to deal with each of Hume's categories of relation. Hume has extensive discussions of some of these (the "matters of fact" relations of space, time, identity, and causation), but almost nothing to say about some of the others (the "relations of ideas" of resemblance, contrariety, degree of quality, and quantity and number). All of them raise interpretive problems, and attempting to resolve them will suggest new ways of understanding a number of important issues in Hume's philosophy including: the nature of the cognitive process of comparing ideas and Michael Costa is at the Department of Philosophy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208 USA. email: costam@garnet.cla.sc.edu 72 Michael Costa deriving a general idea from the comparison, the distinction between having a belief and making an assertion or explicit judgment on the basis of one's beliefs, the nature of a fiction or fictitious idea, how Hume thinks that language and symbols enhance cognitive processing, and how we should understand Hume's empiricist criterion of meaning. The obvious place to start in addressing the question of what ideas of relation consist in for Hume is the section "Of relations" that appears early in the Treatise? Just prior to this section Hume indicates that he thinks of relations as complex ideas. He says, "complex ideas may be divided into Relations, Modes, and Substances" (T 13). He goes on in the section to draw a distinction between natural and philosophical relations as a distinction between those relations that are connected to associations in thought (the natural relations) and all relations whatsoever that can be conceived (the philosophical relations) (T 13-14). But that distinction does not in itself shed any light on the nature of our ideas of the latter as complex ideas. Nor, initially, do Hume's brief remarks on each of the seven categories of relations (T 14-15), although we will find some interesting issues to mine here after getting a better understanding of Hume's account of relations as complex ideas. We can get some help by recalling the way in which Hume draws the distinction between simple and complex ideas. This division is into Simple and Complex. Simple perceptions or impressions and ideas are such as admit of no distinction nor separation. The complex are the contrary to these, and may be distinguished into parts. Tho' a particular colour, taste, and smell are qualities all united together in this apple, 'tis easy to perceive they are not the same, but are at least distinguishable from each other. (T 2) A complex idea is one that can be distinguished into parts. Hume's illustration of the apple can easily mislead. He seems to be talking about an apple (physical object) as a collection of qualities. But for this to serve as an illustration of the distinction under discussion we must read him as talking about an impression or idea of an apple being a collection of impressions... (shrink)