Artificial intelligence is currently changing many areas of society. Especially in health, where critical decisions are made, questions of control must be renegotiated: who is in control when an automated system makes clinically relevant decisions? Increasingly, the concept of meaningful human control (MHC) is being invoked for this purpose. However, it is unclear exactly how this concept is to be understood in health. Through a systematic review, we present the current state of the concept of MHC in health. The results (...) show that there is not yet a robust MHC concept for health. We propose a broader understanding of MHC along three strands of action: enabling, exercising and evaluating control. Taking into account these strands of action and the established rules and processes in the different health sectors, the MHC concept needs to be further developed to avoid falling into two gaps, which we have described as theoretical and labelling gaps. (shrink)

Ethical problems regularly arise during daily care in nursing homes. These include violation of patients' right to autonomy and to be treated with respect. The aim of this study was to investigate how caregivers emphasize daily dialogue and mutual reflection to reach moral alternatives in daily care. The data were collected by participant observation and interviews with seven caregivers in a Norwegian nursing home. A number of ethical problems linked to 10 patients were disclosed. Moral problems were revealed as the (...) caregivers acted in ways that they knew were against patients' interest. We used a theoretical interpretation according to Habermas' discourse ethics on the importance of dialogue when deciding moral courses of action for patients. This theory has four basic requirements: communicative competence, equality, self-determination, and openness about motives. (shrink)

In the recent debate on political normativity in political philosophy, two positions have emerged among so-called political realists. On the first ‘non-moral’ view, political normativity is understood as orthogonal to moral normativity. On the second ‘filter view’, moral norms and prescriptions may be ‘filtered through’ the realities of politics such that they are altered by politics’ constitutive features. While the former has been severely criticized, the latter has remained underdeveloped and vague. To take the debate on political normativity forward, the (...) aim in this paper is to explore what it could reasonably mean to claim that moral norms are filtered through politics and are aligned with its constitutive features. More specifically, we explore the role of moral norms in political theory. We take our starting-point in Larmore’s work and make two claims. First, we argue against Larmore’s claim – following political realists – that because political philosophy is concerned with the regulation of basic institutions and legal-political orders, it should primarily focus on political legitimacy rather than justice and always focus on legitimacy before justice. In our view, nothing in the constitutive features of politics supports such a conclusion. Second, we argue that any reasonable political theory relies on at least one moral premise, constituted by foundational principles (or values), which are independent of a society or polity. These are more basic than political principles in the sense that they put up the normative boundary conditions for such principles. (shrink)

If one of the most important aims of education on military ethics is to strengthen moral competence, we argue that it is important to base ethics education on virtue ethics, the Socratic attitude and the process of ?living learning?. This article illustrates this position by means of the example of a ?train the trainer? course on military ethics for Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs), which is developed at the Netherlands Defence Academy, and uses a number of examples both from its structure and (...) from experiences from its actual use. (shrink)

Complex technology has become an essential aspect of everyday life. We rely on technology as part of basic infrastructure and repeatedly for tasks throughout the day. Yet, in many cases the relation surpasses mere reliance and evolves to trust in technology. A new, disruptive technology is blockchain. It claims to introduce trustless relationships among its users, aiming to eliminate the need for trust altogether—even being described as “the trust machine”. This paper presents a proposal to adjust the concept of trust (...) in blockchain applications with the tools provided by conceptual engineering. Its goal is to propose a concept of trust, that offers more than a halo term, devoid of the normative depth that the original, philosophical term actually carries. To evaluate possible concepts of trust in blockchain applications, five criteria are proposed: These criteria ensure that the conceptual relation indeed embodies trust, thereby being richer than mere reliance, and that the chosen concept highlights the active role of the trustor. While the concepts of trust in engineers and trust in algorithms have to be discarded, institutional trust emerges as a viable candidate, given some refinements. Ultimately, the concept of trust by normative expectations and attribution is suggested to capture the essence of trust in blockchain applications. (shrink)

Current debates about reasons and reasoning often draw comparisons between epistemic and practical reasons and reasoning and presuppose substantial unity between the practical and epistemic domains. This stance seems to conflict with a stark Humean contrast between the two domains: With respect to practical reasons and reasoning, Hume highlights the role of impressions, especially the passions, in motivating and rationalizing action, while apparently downplaying the potential relevance of beliefs, reason, or reasons. With respect to epistemic reasons and theoretical reasoning, he (...) urges us to proportion our belief to the evidence (EHU 10.4), which suggests a significant epistemic role for evidential reasons. My contribution ar-gues that there is nonetheless a convincing and interesting unified Humean account of reasons and reasoning across both domains. To present my case, I first narrow down the unity claim that I am interested in. I then closely engage with Hume’s claims in epistemology, the philos-ophy of action, and metaethics to develop the unified Humean account. (shrink)

Revision of the author's thesis--Frankfurt am Main, 2009.

ZusammenfassungBei den meisten Patienten, die heute erwartet an einer unheilbaren Krankheit versterben, wird vor ihrem Tod eine bewusste Entscheidung zum Therapieverzicht getroffen. Während dem Therapieverzicht auf Wunsch des Patienten ein wichtiger Stellenwert in der medizinethischen Diskussion zukommt, hat der Umgang mit Forderung nach „unangemessener“ Maximaltherapie bislang weniger Beachtung gefunden. In einer empirischen Studie zur Einbeziehung von Patienten in Entscheidungen zum Therapieverzicht konnten wir zeigen, dass etwa ein Drittel der Patienten auch bei infauster Prognose Lebenszeit durch Maximaltherapie gewinnen möchte. Diese Patienten (...) wurden im Gegensatz zu Patienten mit palliativem Therapieziel häufig nicht in Entscheidungen zur Therapiebegrenzung einbezogen. Hier werden die ethischen Implikationen dieser Praxis untersucht und gefragt, ob ein Therapieverzicht am Lebensende auch gegen den Wunsch des Patienten ethisch zu rechtfertigen ist oder ob Ärzte dem Wunsch des Patienten nach Lebenszeitgewinn auch bei infauster Prognose durch Maximaltherapie nachkommen sollen. Vor dem Hintergrund der gängigen Konzepte zur Rechtfertigung eines einseitigen Therapieverzichts, die für sich genommen zu kurz greifen, wird ein alternatives Entscheidungsmodell vorgestellt, das vier bewertungsrelevante Kriterien vorsieht: die Wirksamkeit einer Maßnahme, die Autonomiefähigkeit des Patienten, die patientenseitige Nutzenbewertung und die Kosten für die Solidargemeinschaft. Je nachdem, welche Kriterien erfüllt sind, rechtfertigen sie eine Entscheidung zum Therapieverzicht oder eine Fortsetzung der Therapie entsprechend dem Patientenwillen. (shrink)

According to the fear module theory, humans are evolutionarily predisposed to perceive snakes as prioritized stimuli and exhibit a fast emotional and behavioral response toward them. In Europe, highly dangerous snake species are distributed almost exclusively in the Mediterranean and Caspian areas. While the risk of a snakebite is relatively low in Central Europe, Azerbaijan, on the other hand, has a high occurrence of the deadly venomous Levant viper ( Macrovipera lebetina ). We hypothesize that co-habitation with this dangerous snake (...) has shaped the way in which humans evaluate snake species resembling it. For that purpose, we asked respondents from the Czech Republic and Azerbaijan to rank photographs depicting 36 snake species according to perceived fear and beauty. The results revealed a high cross-cultural agreement in both evaluations (fear r 2 = 0.683, p r 2 = 0.816, p. (shrink)

This essay is an interpretation of Nietzsche’s enigmatic idea of the Eternal Return of the Same in the context of his life rather than of his philosophy. Nietzsche never explained his ‘abysmal thought’ and referred to it directly only in a few passages of his published writings, but numerous interpretations have been made in secondary literature. None of these, however, has examined the significance of this thought for Nietzsche, the man. The idea belongs to a moment of ecstasy which Nietzsche (...) experienced during the summer of 1881 in Sils-Maria, in the Swiss Alps. Like Dante, in ‘the middle of life’, he walked down the wooded Alpine slope and entered his own Inferno. On the anniversary of long-buried loss and pain, his psyche was temporarily flooded by archetypal imagery. This event is interpreted in the light of Freud’s theory of repetition compulsion, the uncanny, and the oedipal confrontation with the unconscious. From the turbulent and frightful experience, a symbol of transfiguration emerged in the shape of Eternal Return. Its likeness to Mandala, a Jungian archetype of wholeness and the self, is striking. In the years that followed, Nietzsche produced his greatest works that assured him an unassailable place in Western philosophy. And yet, there was something disturbing about this dream-thought, and Nietzsche shuddered at any mention of the thought. Linking it with the head of Medusa in his unpublished notes, he hinted at its petrifying quality. The beguiling beauty of Medusa makes her an ambiguous symbol of exhilaration, as well as terror. Under her captivating gaze, a hero’s journey towards selfhood becomes a journey into the night of madness. (shrink)

Contrasting two standard models of corporate responsibility—the so-called “collectivist” and “individualist” model—this essay proposes a third option, namely, a discursive conception of responsibility and examines whether and how this conception can be applied to the corporate level. It does so by taking a careful look at one of the preconditions of individual discursive responsibility, i.e. discursive practical reason, and discussing how corporate agents can meet this precondition. Building on this new concept, the essay also offers a novel approach to justifying (...) corporate responsibility by referring to an argument advanced by Rainer Forst stating that a fundamental human right to justification is the normative core of any kind of responsibility and combining it, in a second step, with an argument recently proposed by Philip Pettit and Christian List showing the impossibility of forming consistent group attitudes and beliefs as a function of the attitudes and beliefs of individual group members. Finally, this essay outlines certain preliminary conclusions about the incorporation of responsibility in a corporate context. (shrink)

In most discussions of the evolution of sex chromosomes, it is presumed that the morphological differences between the X and Y were initiated by genetic changes. An alternative possibility is that, in the early stages, a key role was played by epigenetic modifications of chromatin structure that did not depend directly on genetic changes. Such modifications could have resulted from spontaneous epimutations at a sex‐determining locus or, in mammals, from selection in females for the epigenetic silencing of imprinted regions of (...) the paternally derived sex chromosome. Other features of mammalian sex chromosomes that are easier to explain if the epigenetic dimension of chromosome evolution is considered include the relatively large number of X‐linked genes associated with human brain development, and the overrepresentation of spermatogenesis genes on the X. Both may be evolutionary consequences of dosage compensation through X‐inactivation. BioEssays 26:1327–1332, 2004. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

Honesty is essential for the care of seriously ill and dying patients. The current study aimed to describe how nurses experience honesty in their work with patients receiving palliative care at home. The interviews in this phenomenological study were conducted with 16 nurses working with children and adults in palliative home-based care. Three categories emerged from analyses of the interviews: the meaning of honesty, the reason for being honest and, finally, moral conflict when dealing with honesty. The essence of these (...) descriptions was that honesty is seen as a virtue, a good quality that a nurse should have. The nurses’ ethical standpoint was shown in the moral character they show in their work and in their intention to do good. This study could help nurses to identify different ways of looking at honesty to promote more consciousness and openness in ethical discussions between colleagues and other staff members. (shrink)

This qualitative study describes midwives’ experiences in relation to termination of pregnancy for fetal abnormalities, and their corresponding professional and ethical position. Thirteen midwives working in a university clinic were interviewed about their problems in this respect. The information gathered was evaluated by using qualitative content analysis. The study focused on the emotional experience of the midwives, their professional position, and ethical conflict. In this situation, midwives are faced with a conflict between the woman’s right to self-determination on one hand (...) and the right to life of the child on the other. This conflict causes a high level of emotional stress and, subsequently, professional identity problems. Although questions concerning the child’s right to life are generally suppressed, the ethical principle of the woman’s right to self-determination is rationalized. Although this process of rationalization seems to present a false ethical decision, it enables midwives to continue with their daily professional duties. As far as orientating midwives to the value of these women’s right to self-determination is concerned, it must be assumed that they have made an ethical decision to which they have given insufficient thought. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that midwives are largely excluded from the decision-making process of the parents in question. They cannot therefore help in this process in a valuable and responsible way by providing clear information and proposing objective criteria. In relation to the tasks they are expected to fulfil, these midwives revealed that they were in a state of professional confusion. (shrink)

This article examines Kant’s understanding of moral progress, especially in his Religion where he argues that religion and, more importantly, the foundation of an ethical community are necessary to promote moral progress. However, it is less the identification of any factual moral progress but rather the idea of moral progress as an action guiding principle that Kant identifies as central. The conclusion shows how Kant’s insights are in accordance with the argument that we should not look for comprehensive moral progress (...) in history but adhere to the idea of possible future moral progress. (shrink)

Nietzsche’s cardinal ideas - God is Dead, Übermensch and Eternal Return of the Same - are approached here from the perspective of psychiatric phenomenology rather than that of philosophy. A revised diagnosis of the philosopher’s mental illness as manic-depressive psychosis forms the premise for discussion. Nietzsche conceived the above thoughts in close proximity to his first manic psychotic episode, in the summer of 1881, while staying in Sils-Maria (Swiss Alps). It was the anniversary of his father’s death, and also of (...) the break-up of his friendship with Wagner, the most important relationship in his life. Despite having been acquainted with these ideas from reading philosophy and literature, Nietzsche created them de novo and imbued them with very personal meaning. Surprisingly, he never defined or explained his cardinal thoughts in his published writings, perhaps because rationally he could not. A resultant hermeneutic vacuum provoked an avalanche of interpretations in secondary literature. But could these ideas be delusions? A current definition of delusion is challenged, and an attempt is made at a limited comparison between delusion, scientific/philosophical doctrine and poetic creation. It is also argued that psychosis is a way of re-living trauma, and delusions can therefore be seen as a form of reasoning that helps to make sense of the world in a state of psychotic disintegration. Far from being false beliefs, delusions are a true expression of one’s innermost feelings and pain, albeit indirectly. The relationship between early parental loss and repeated trauma, psychosis and creativity is also explored. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology , Volume 8, Edition 1 May 2008. (shrink)

Post- and decolonial theory have contested the idea of historical progress as a Eurocentric, hegemonic, or neocolonialist misconception. Does this imply that we should give up any idea of moral progress? This paper critically examines Allen Buchanan’s and Russell Powell’s book The Evolution of Moral Progress and their claim that there is still a need for a theory of moral progress. For Buchanan and Powell, such theory should allow and guide a better understanding of what moral progress consists of. Even (...) though they do not claim to already provide us with such a comprehensive theory of moral progress they aim to work out whether and how certain types of moral progress are possible and assess their limits. In doing so they mainly focus on improvements in terms of social participation as an uncontroversial type of moral progress. In the following, I will first discuss the characteristics of the authors’ notion of progress and then raise some critical concerns about the example they have chosen of the history of human rights as a history of progress and, particularly, about the history of the rights of people with disabilities. (shrink)

Cursory review of the reception of Adorno's unfinished Aesthetic Theory up to the present suggests that an introduction to the book's major concerns, its structure (or lack thereof), and its concepts is missing to this date. Going back to Fredric Jameson's watershed contribution Late Marxism: Adorno, Or, the Persistence of the Dialectic (1990), the article attempts to provide the introduction missing to date. It is organized around key concepts of Adorno's Aesthetic Theory, beginning with the guiding juxtaposition of Kant's formalist (...) aesthetics vs. Hegel's content aesthetics and the various notions of the End of Art, followed by two sections on art and its respective others (from the culture industry and art appreciation to nature and natural beauty), and concluding with the axiom of suffering and its impact on the key notions of semblance, expression, and mimesis. (shrink)

En lo que sigue voy a hablar solamente del amor en la modernidad, y si empecé por el Banquete de Platón fue para subrayar el hecho de que el amor ha estado conectado al discurso sobre las virtudes. Así, por todas estas razones, podemos afirmar que el amor ha sido parte de la vida buena, y que la mayoría de las teorías modernas de la vida buena no pueden prescindir de él (la vida buena se entiende aquí en el sentido (...) aristotélico de las virtudes que conducen a una vida buena). Y, no obstante, es aquí donde la comunión entre filósofos y sociólogos debe desunirse. Es justo en este punto donde creo que las teorías filosóficas de la vida buena confunden lo descriptivo y lo normativo y no erigen su teoría normativa a partir de una comprensión empírica de la vida buena tal como realmente es vivida y practicada (y en su lugar proyectan ideales normativos en una realidad idealizada de la Antigüedad). Así que en lugar de hablar del amor como una especie de proyecto normativo que debería hacer parte de la vida buena, me gustaría examinar si el amor moderno en realidad nos brinda un marco con el cual se pueden construir tales teorías normativas. (shrink)

Focusing on ‘real actions’ of ‘real people’, normative behaviourism turns facts about observable patterns of behaviour into grounds for specific normative political principles. For this reason, this way of doing normative political theory has strong political realist credentials, given its methods, values and ambitions. In fact, according to its supporters, normative behaviourism is an improvement of political realism since it solves two problems that allegedly face many realists, namely, the ‘legitimacy problem’, i.e., how we should distinguish genuine acceptance of a (...) political system from false acceptance, and ‘the institutional problem’, i.e., how we should translate political principles into viable political institutions. In this paper, we make two claims. First, normative behaviourism does not solve the legitimacy problem encountered by realists, because its solution rests on a flawed distinction between foundational principles and ‘principles that matter’, together with a problematic use of a Humean internal reasons approach. Second, normative behaviourism does not solve the institutional problem encountered by realists, because its solution is in fact much more unfeasible than realist prescriptions, since feasibility is interpreted as mere possibility. We wind up our analysis by showing that normative behaviourism encounters new problems that realist approaches typically do not face. (shrink)

The author investigates the notion of linguistic meaning in gender research. She approaches this basic problem by drawing upon two very different conceptions of language and meaning: that of the logician Gottlob Frege and that of the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Motivated by the controversial response the Anglo-American sex/gender debate received within the German context, the author focuses on the connection between this epistemological controversy among feminists and two discursive traditions of linguistic meaning , to show how philosophy of language (...) can contribute to current feminist debates. (shrink)

A primary goal of this book is to enhance intercultural academic exchange and to encourage further research and practical work in this field.

In this paper I investigate the limits of toleration using the example of the German debate on dealing with opponents of the covid vaccination. First, I present central elements of Rainer Forst’s conception of tolerance. I then refer to an important historical context of the emergence of tolerance and, using Pierre Bayle’s conception, show that the demand for tolerance of his time was limited to a specific context, but allows for some generalizations. Finally, I argue that we have to tolerate (...) those who see themselves as “Querdenker” (“lateral thinkers”) as long as their opposition does not violate applicable laws and thus endanger the framework of our democratic and constitutional order. Keywords: Toleration, limits of toleration, societal cohesion, covid vaccination, Pierre Bayle, Rainer Forst, Wendy Brown. (shrink)

Etude du phénomène du kitsch à travers les littératures et cultures d'Europe, d'Amérique du Nord et du Sud et du Japon.

En esta investigación se realiza un análisis de las normativas y protocolos autonómicos y locales de las ludotecas pertenecientes a la Comunidad Autónoma de Castilla y León (España) durante los años 2017-2022. Parte de un diseño de mapeo sistemático de normativas con el siguiente criterio de inclusión “localidades de más de 5000 habitantes de la comunidad castellano-leonesa” por entender que estas poseen recursos económicos para mantener en el tiempo estos servicios sociocomunitarios. Se estudian los documentos entre los años 2017 y (...) 2022 con la intención de analizar la evolución de las ludotecas en Castilla y León. (shrink)

In this article, we analyse the global consensus on the UN’s partnership approach to businesses through an agonistic lens. In doing so, we seek to understand the positioning of states, particularly those in the Global South, towards the partnership approach. We draw on Mouffe’s conceptualisation of ‘the political’, in which the appearance of consensus is always an expression of hegemony accompanied by exclusion and dissensus. First, we show that the partnership approach was initially promoted by the Global North, in particular (...) European states together with UN leadership, against fears and criticism raised by Global South states. Second, we show that Global South states have not fundamentally challenged the idea of engaging in partnerships with businesses, but they have questioned how these partnerships should be designed to shape a more equally beneficial global economy. With this article, we contribute to the literature on the UN and business ethics by identifying how the evolution of the consensus on business partnerships has been a hegemonic arrangement since the 2000s. Furthermore, we illustrate the role that states have had in forming this consensus. We also contribute to business ethics studies engaging with dissensus by problematising the potential of ‘agonistic deliberation’ at the UN level in supporting the interests of the Global South. (shrink)

Hans Blumenbergs Werk ist mit einer Theorie des Mythos, der Metapher und der Epochenumbrüche, technikphilosophischen Reflexionen, literaturtheoretischen Überlegungen und literarischen Glossen ungewöhnlich vielgestaltig. Die Beiträge des Bandes begegnen diesem Umstand, indem sie nicht einzelne Grundgedanken, sondern Vorgehensweisen und Techniken, methodische Ansätze und taktische Blickwendungen fokussieren. Ihr Interesse gilt Blumenbergs Verfahren. Sie betrachten etwa den Metapherngebrauch des Metaphorologen und seine Vorliebe für implikative Zugänge, die unmögliche Abschreitung des Horizonts und die Verabschiedung der Theorie als theoretisches Verfahren. Auf welche Weise nähert sich (...) Blumenberg den Wirklichkeiten, in denen wir leben? Wie wird die Arbeit an der Bedeutsamkeit ins Werk gesetzt? Und welche dieser Verfahren lassen sich heute noch in Anspruch nehmen oder weiterdenken? Mit Beiträgen von Hannes Bajohr, Rüdiger Campe, Johannes Endres, Sebastian Feil, Petra Gehring, Eva Geulen, Anselm Haverkamp, Felix Heidenreich, Katharina Hertfelder, Wolfgang Hottner, Niklaus Largier, Christoph Paret, Birgit Recki und Christine Weder. (shrink)

Verträgt sich Religion mit Aufklärung? Was für eine Rolle spielt die Theologie dabei? Kants Der Streit der Fakultäten kommt zu dem Schluss, dass der unendliche Streit um die Religion nicht zwangsläufig zum Problem für die Aufklärung werden muss, sondern seine Institutionalisierung die beste Hoffnung für Freiheit ist: Ohne Kritik kein Fortschritt, ohne Streit bloß Irrglaube. F.W.J. Schellings, Jacques Derridas und Judith Butlers Auseinandersetzung mit Kants Werk zeigen jedoch auch, dass dabei auch die Regeln des Streites strittig werden müssen: Wer legt (...) die Regeln fest? So wird die Kritik an Religion selbst zwangsläufig mit Kritik konfrontiert: Wer hat die Macht über den vernünftigen Diskurs? Eine antagonismustheoretische Perspektive auf dieses Problem zeigt: Aus Feinden können Gegner werden und aus Krieg Streit. Doch ob sich Fortschritt und Freiheit aus braven Debatten und Reformen oder als harter Kampf einstellt - oder eben überhaupt nicht - ist eine offene Frage. (shrink)

In der moralphilosophischen Literatur existieren verschiedene Auffassungen darüber, worauf die Autorität moralischer Normen basiert. Einige Moralphilosophen führen das moralische Sollen auf die Vernunft, das Wohlwollen oder auch auf die Wahrnehmung moralischer Tatsachen zurück; andere dagegen meinen, dass das moralische Sollen auf äußeren Sanktionen wie sozialem Ausschluss oder inneren Sanktionen wie Schuldgefühlen beruht. Die sowohl in der Geschichte der Philosophie als auch in der gegenwärtigen Auseinandersetzung häufig vertretene Meinung, dass moralische Verpflichtung notwendig an Sanktionierung geknüpft ist, wird aus verschiedenen Perspektiven kritisch (...) untersucht. (shrink)

Die Untersuchungen von Max Scheler zu Emotionen und der Intentionalität von affektiven Prozessen sind auch für Nicht-Phänomenologen überaus aufschlussreich. Denn man findet bei ihm systematisches Arbeiten, das sich der Wichtigkeit und der Grenzen der logischen Analyse ebenso bewusst ist, wie denen der empirischen Forschung. Darüber hinaus ist sein Nachdenken darauf gerichtet, den Menschen sowohl als denkendes Wesen, das zu höheren Reflexionen in der Lage ist, als auch als empfindendes ‚Naturwesen’ mittles philosophischer Überlegung zu verstehen. Max Scheler steht damit in einem (...) gewissen Gegensatz zu der ihm vorangegangenen Kantisch geprägten deutschen Philosophietradition, aber auch zu der ihm nachfolgenden, rein begrifflich orientierten analytischen Philosophietradition. Dennoch ist eine erneute Scheler-Lektüre gerade vor dem Hintergrund der letzteren, nämlich der Geschichte der analytischen Philosophie höchst aufschlussreich. (shrink)

Ziel dieses systematischen Ansatz ist es eine Antwort auf die Frage der Wahrheitswertzuschreibung für irreale Konditionalsätze zu geben. Die große philosophische Fragestellung, die damit verfolgt wird, betrifft das Verhältnis von Sprache und Welt, Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit. Am Ende wird geklärt inwiefern logische Strukturen einen Weltbezug haben. Damit ist ein Vorschlag der Naturalisierung der Normativität der Semantik verbunden. Außer sprachphilosophischen Überlegungen werden auch erkenntnistheoretische und wissenschaftstheoretische Überlegungen angestellt. -/- Inhaltsverzeichnis -/- Vorwort 7 -/- Einführung 8 -/- I. Tatsachen I -/- 1. (...) Unabhängigkeit von Tatsachen und Variationen des Gegebenen 37 1.1 Was wäre, wenn Tatsachen nicht unabhängig voneinander wären? 40 1.2 Folgen für Überlegungen zu Variationen des Gegebenen, wenn Tatsachen nicht unabhängig voneinander wären 41 1.3 Das Prinzip der Ununterscheidbarkeit 43 1.4 Modale Kontexte und referentielle Undurchlässigkeit 46 1.5 Wahrheitswertsemantik und wesentliche Eigenschaften 49 1.6 Das modale Argument 51 1.7 Eine einzige Tatsache 51 1.8 Situationssemantik 55 1.9 Unabhängigkeit von Tatsachen II 61 1.10 Referentielle und attributive Lesart 63 -/- Probleme mit Tatsachen als Wahrmachern; kontingente und notwendige oder wesentliche Eigenschaften; attributive und referentielle Lesart; Tatsachen als Voraussetzung -/- II. Notwendigkeit -/- 2. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche I 68 -/- Der Notwendigkeitscharakter des Apriorischen; Kant und Kripke; Identität und Notwendigkeit; Identität und kontrafaktische Sätze; Identität und materieller Ursprung; theoretische Identifikation und natürliche Arten; wesentliche Eigenschaften und notwendige Identifikation; absolute Identität -/- 3. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche II 84 3.1 Der Notwendigkeitscharakter des Apriorischen oder der Aprioritätscharakter des Möglichen. Induktionsprobleme 86 3.2 Der Möglichkeitsbegriff im "Tractatus" 92 -/- Die Rolle des Apriori für die Begriffe Möglichkeit und Notwendigkeit; Möglichkeit und Notwendigkeit in der Logik; der Möglichkeitsbegriff im Tractatus; Kritik von Seiten des Intuitionismus -/- 4. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche III 97 -/- Die Bedeutung von Quines Kritik an der Unterscheidung von analytisch und synthetisch für den Notwendigkeitsbegriff; Kritik an dieser Kritik und an "Es könnte auch anders sein" als Ausdruck jedweder Unmöglichkeit von Notwendigkeit. Verhältnis zwischen logischen Gesetzen und Erfahrung -/- III. Projektion und Regelfolgen -/- 5. Ein Verständnis von Möglichkeit und Projektion ohne den Begriff der Notwendigkeit. Der Möglichkeitsbegriff in den "Bemerkungen zu den Grundlagen der Mathematik" von Ludwig Wittgenstein 109 -/- Mathematisches Apriori und Möglichkeit; Möglichkeit ohne mathematisches Apriori; das Verhältnis von Möglichkeit und Neuem oder Anderem; Erfahrung und Möglichkeit, Möglichkeit und Symbol; Möglichkeit und Normativität; Projektion von Symbolen -/- 6. Ähnlichkeit und Projektion - Projektion und Regelfolgen 120 -/- Möglichkeit als Bereich der Induktion oder des Regelfolgens. Parallelen zwischen Kripkes Skepsis in bezug auf Regelfolgen und Goodmans Fassung des Induktionsproblems. Tatsache und Wirklichkeit. Identität und Ähnlichkeit; Möglichkeit als enge Relation zur Wirklichkeit; die Reduktion von Möglichem auf Wirkliches bei Goodman; Erfahrung und Kriterien der Identität; Regeln als Praxis und ihr normativer Gehalt; tatsächliche Fortsetzbarkeit und Normativität -/- IV. Tatsachen II -/- 7. Tatsachen und Welterzeuger I 134 -/- Der Tatsachenbegriff Goodmans; Tatsachen, denen kein realistischer Wahrheitsbegriff zugrunde liegt; richtige und falsche Weltversionen; die Versöhnung von Weltversionen; relevante Merkmale und Tatsachen; Tatsachen erzeugen Wirklichkeiten, erzeugte Weltversionen und Tatsachenbegriff -/- V. Wirklichkeit -/- 8. Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit 147 -/- Wirklichkeit von Dingen, Erzählungen und Empfindungen; Historizität ist nicht gleich Relativität; Goodmans mathematische Beispiele zum Verhältnis zwischen Wirklichkeit, Wahrheit und Welt; Mathematik und Erfahrung; Verankerung, Abgeschlossenheit und Unabgeschlossenheit von Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit -/- 9. Unendlichkeit und Wirklichkeit 157 -/- Das Unendliche ist größer als die Wirklichkeit; Unendlichkeit und Situationssemantik; Unendlichkeit und Fortsetzbarkeit; Definition der minimalen Situation; Verhältnis zwischen aktualer Unendlichkeit und Wirklichkeit, von Wirklichkeit und Tatsache und von Möglichkeit und Unendlichkeit; Definition von echter aktualer Unendlichkeit und "praktischer" Unendlichkeit mit Hilfe des Begriffs der Linearität -/- VI. Tatsachen III -/- 10. Tatsachen und Welterzeuger II 172 10.1 Wissen und Erfahrung 181 10.2 Wissen und Tatsachen 183 10.3 Zweifel an der Existenz der Welt 184 10.4 Feststehende und nicht feststehende Sätze 186 10.5 Interner Realismus und interner Interpretationismus 189 10.6 Der Tatsachenbegriff in "Über Gewißheit" 191 -/- Tatsachen und Interpretationsphilosophie; skeptische Positionen und Tatsachen; logische Vorgängigkeit unter den Interpretationsebenen?; transzendentale Argumentationen und Notwendigkeit von Begriffsystemen; der logische Stellenwert von Tatsachenfeststellungen -/- 11. Tatsachen und Situationen 197 -/- Tatsachen als Individuen; Tatsachen als wahre Propositionen; Tatsachen als minimale Situationen; Tatsachen und Unendlichkeit; Tatsachen und Projektion; Tatsachen und Regelfolgen -/- VII. Relationen -/- 12. Interne und externe Relationen. Was kann der Begriff der internen Relation leisten? 209 -/- Interne und externe Relationen; Parallelen bei der Unterscheidung von externen und internen Relationen zu den Unterscheidungen von Logik und Naturgeschichte, synthetischen Sätzen a priori und Erfahrung und Regelsätzen und Erfahrung -/- 13. Kontingente Tatsachen und gültiges Urteilen. 224 -/- Kratzers Klumpungsrelation (Lumps of Thought) als Enthaltenseinsrelation und G. E. Moores materiale Implikation; zurück zu den Smaragden Goodmans; das Hinzuziehen allgemeiner, verankerter Grundsätze, deren Verankerung nicht auf reiner Gewohnheit beruht -/- 14. Relationen und kontrafaktisches Schließen 239 -/- Nackte Einzeldinge und Universalien sowie ihre modalen Grundlagen; Relationen als Leitfaden für Urteile, zurück zu internen und externen Relationen; der durch Naturgeschichte übermittelte Maßstab der Sprache -/- VIII. Naturgeschichte -/- 15. Naturgeschichte 254 -/- Naturgeschichte als feststehender Hintergrund für kontingente Sprache und gültiges Urteilen; die Begründung von Normativität in Naturgeschichte; Naturgeschichte als Apriori -/- 16. Sprache und Naturgeschichte. Ein Resümee 266 -/- Appendix: Weltrealisten hinsichtlich möglicher Welten 273 -/- Literaturverzeichnis 279. (shrink)

This paper works out which conceptual and theoretical preconditions have to be met, among others, in order for a living creature to be able to have a feeling of being alive beyond the mere capacity for sensation. For the emergence of such a feeling, which can be equated with a rudimentary phenomenal consciousness (1.), it is not enough for the organism to be alive (2. a.). Rather it has to be able to conceive its body as a unit and to (...) relate its sensations to this unit (2. b.). Moreover mobility (2. c.), a basic sense of possibility (2. d.) and a rudimentary sense of time (2. e.) are also necessary. The analysis of these preconditions relies primarily on Aristotelian theoretical approaches, encompassing both historical interpretation (3. a.), and systematic work, which includes a look at the current debates in the analytic philosophical tradition (3. b.). (shrink)

>Anger shame< are exemplary emotions in the ancient reflections concerning the relation between emotions, the good and the just as well as the relation between emotions and reason. It is shown that these emotions have a regulative function for the community in the ancient world. But they have also quite an important function for becoming an autonomous self and even for the change in character of a self. It is then shown in interpreting the notions of anger and shame in (...) Augustine's writings in how far this changes for late antiquity. Emotions have still a function in relation to the just but only a marginal one to the good, and none for the developing of a self or for reasonable actions. They also do regain a cognitive function in the Middle Ages as is shown in an exemplary way in Thomas Aquinas' writings on emotions, the function they had in relation to the just is of no great importance anymore. It is then interesting to see that also a theory of emotions, as Thomas Aquinas developed is a theory that might be compared with modern theories of emotions, one has to look back to the ancient reflections on shame and the good in order to understand more fully what an author like Imre Kertész being a survivor of German concentration camps writes on shame and the good in his novels. (shrink)