As a recent addition to the editorial board for the journal of Philosophy in the Contemporary World, I wanted to revisit a practice from past editions of the journal—interviewing philosophers who engage philosophical practice that reflects the mission of PCW. In this interview, a model for what I hope will continue to be a regular feature, I have a dialogue with the philosopher Burcu Gurkan. Professor Gurkan currently lives and works in Turkey while I live in work (...) in the central US, so what follows is edited from an email exchange.—Taine Duncan. (shrink)

Considerable evidence supports the sequential two-system model of moral judgement, as proposed by Greene and others. We tested whether judgement speed and/or personal/impersonal moral dilemmas can predict the kind of moral judgements subjects make for each dilemma, and whether personal dilemmas create difficulty in moral judgements. Our results showed that neither personal/impersonal conditions nor spontaneous/thoughtful-reflection conditions were reliable predictors of utilitarian or deontological moral judgements. Yet, we found support for an alternative view, in which, when the two types of responses (...) are in conflict; the resolution of this conflict depends on both the subject and the dilemma. While thinking about this conflict, subjects sometimes change their minds in both directions, as suggested by the data from a mouse-tracking task. (shrink)

The liberal international legal order faces a legitimacy crisis today that becomes visible with the recent anti-internationalist turn, the rise of populism and the recent Russian invasion of Ukraine. Either its authority or legitimacy has been tested many times over the last three decades. The article argues that this anti-internationalist trend may be read as a reaction against the neoliberal form taken by international law, not least over the last three decades. In uncovering the intricacies of international law’s legitimacy crisis, (...) the article uncovers the paradox of global constitutionalism: that its need to adopt a sectoral form of integration may cause a legitimacy gap/deficit because international authorities, resting their legitimacy primarily on instrumental grounds, may face problems in compensating for the legitimacy deficit caused by the erosion of domestic sovereignty and extending their legitimacy to non-instrumental grounds. This paradox has one necessary structural and two contingent content-related implications for domestic democracies: (1) it necessarily narrows down the regulatory space of nation-states; and this may in turn (2) impair democratic stability and solidarity, and (3) provide a fertile ground for populism. Drawing on Raz’s service conception, the article focuses on the interaction between international and domestic authorities and highlights the problematic aspects of the neoliberal constitutionalization of international law. (shrink)

This paper examines the ethico-legal problems regarding the right to refuse treatment in Turkey's healthcare system. We discuss these problems in the light of a recent case that was directly reported to us. We first summarise the experience of a chronically dependent patient (as recounted by her daughter) and her family during their efforts to refuse treatment and receive palliative care only. This is followed by a summary of the legal framework governing the limits of the right to refuse treatment (...) in Turkey. With the help of this background information on the legal framework, we re-examine the ethico-legal aspects of the case and explain the underlying reasons for the problems the family and the patient experienced. Finally, we conclude that Turkey's legal framework relating to the right to refuse treatment needs to be clarified and amended in accordance with international conventions and fundamental human rights. (shrink)

The transformation of international law has provoked a burgeoning literature on various conceptual and normative questions, such as the nature and legitimacy of international authorities. Constitutional and international scholars have so far been attracted to domestic normative theories such as constitutionalism, democratic legitimacy, and the rule of law. This attraction often comes at the expense of a more fundamental and prior question: How best to carry out this normative investigation and which normative theory to put into use in assessing the (...) moral value of international authorities? This “meta-theoretical question” invites us to investigate the methodology of transnational constitutional theorizing by prompting discussions on which normative theory is more suitable for application at the international level. This review article brings into dialogue two recently published books (Sadurski’s Constitutional Public Reason and Mac Amhlaigh’s New Constitutional Horizons) that partially address this meta-theoretical question by prompting us to reflect on how best to conduct transnational constitutional theorizing. (shrink)

Bilimcilik, bilgi edinmenin tek yolunun bilimsel yöntem olduğu görüşünü içeren felsefî bir yaklaşımdır. Bilimsel yöntemin uygulanmasında yalnızca maddî gerçekliğin varsayılması nedeniyle bilimcilik metafiziği ve a priori bilgiyi reddeden materyalist ve natüralist bir felsefedir aynı zamanda. İnanışın gerekçelendirilmesinde geleneksel epistemolojide başvurulan normların deneysel olmamaları nedeniyle reddedildiği epistemolojik natüralizmde, gerekçelendirme yerine inanç oluşum sürecinin psikolojik bir betimlemesi yeterli görülür. İnanç oluşumunun dayanaklarının yeterince uygun olup olmadığı endişesini ifade eden “epistemik kaygı”, bilimcileri bilgi için somut bir zemin arayışına itmiştir. Gerçeklikle bilgi arasındaki ilişkide (...) söz konusu zemine bağlı olarak güvenilirlik ve nesnellik nitelikleri öne çıkar. Bilimcilik savunucuları, sorunun çözümü için geliştirilen içselci yaklaşımlarda gerekçelendirme için üst standartlar belirlenmesinin epistemik kaygıyı gidermeyip epistemik geri gitme sorununa yol açtığını düşünürler. İçselci yaklaşımlarda olduğu gibi bilgi için öznenin bilişsel unsurlara erişimini gerekli görmeyen bilimciler, deneysel yöntemin yeterli sayıldığı dışsalcı tutumu benimserler. Bilgi için somut bir zemin arayışını ifade eden epistemik kaygının giderilmek istendiği dışsalcılıkta özellikle normlar, metafizik yargılar ve a priori önermelerden oluşan sorunlar öne çıkmaktadır. Bilginin standartlarının deneyle sınırlandırıldığı bilimciliğin normatiflikten kaçınamaması, bilimsel faaliyetin metafizik varsayımlarla başlaması ve çelişmezlik ilkesinden hareketle a priori bir doğru ortaya konulabilmesi, dışsalcı epistemolojinin somut zemin arayışına engel teşkil eder. Bu durum, epistemik kaygının dışsalcı tutumla aşılamadığı ve yanı sıra epistemoloji özelinde felsefenin bilimselleştirilmesi çabasının da başarılı olmadığı sonuçlarını verir. (shrink)

This issue's Critical Forum takes its point of departure from two paradigm shifts. The first one has already occurred in utopian studies, as attested by the increasingly evident interest in non-Western conceptions of utopianism and representations of speculative fiction. Scholars of utopian studies such as Lyman Tower Sargent and Jacqueline Dutton have been writing on utopias from other cultural traditions. The 2013 special issue of Utopian Studies (vol. 24, no. 1), which was introduced by Sargent and Dutton, included articles that (...) reflected Iranian, Chinese, and Korean narratives and perspectives. During the first decade of the twenty-first century, monographs1 and journal special issues2 began examining literary... Read More. (shrink)

INTRODUCTION[|]The practice of medicine has evolved from old approach, in which all decisions for the patient are taken by physician, to a new approach, which includes patients to the medical decision-making process and endorses informed consent of the patients. In addition to healthcare professionals and patients, parents or legal representatives are stakeholders in the informed consent process of children. The knowledge and attitudes of physicians and medical school students about the informed consent period in children are important for the effectiveness (...) of the medical intervention and the biopsychosocial development of children. In this study, it was aimed to understand involvement of medical students and physicians in the informed consent process of children and their level of knowledge on children's rights and their attitudes in daily clinical practice.[¤]METHODS[|]The study is a descriptive study and n = 150 participants, who were randomly selected from senior medical school students working in medical school campus or university hospital and physicians serving pediatric patients, were included to this study. Questionnaires were applied for the measurement of participants' socio-demographic characteristics, education on pediatric patient rights, and legal provisions. The data were evaluated using SPSS 20.00 software.[¤]RESULTS[|]Of participants, 62% (n = 93) were phase 6 medical students, while 29.33% (n = 44) were resident physicians and the rest were faculty members (8.67%; n = 13). The proportion of physicians, who didn't received training on child rights, was 80.7% (n = 46) and statistically significantly higher than medical students (49.45%; n = 45) (p <0.001). However, participants who were not educated about the children's rights stated with higher ratio (44.83%; n=65), that informed consent should be obtained before medical intervention from individuals under 18 years of age, when they are compared to the the participants who received education (20.69%; n=30) (p = 0,019). The majority of participants (59.5%; n = 88) find the intervention in individuals under the age of 18 years in emergencies without consent of legal representatives ethically and legally appropriate (p <0.001). The participants believe that it is ethically and legally appropriate to conduct an intervention on an individual under the age of 18 years without the legal representative (36. 7%; n=54) (p <0.001).[¤]DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION[|]This study compared the levels of knowledge and attitudes of participants, who were previously trained in or didn't received any training about children's rights and informed consent of children. However, the quality of the training of the participants on children's rights, was not questioned. This study showed that education on children's rights does not significantly increase the level of legal knowledge on children's rights. Having well-designed a subject focused on this theme in medical deontology and ethics education can increase the knowledge levels and improve the attitudes of medical students. This study sheds light on the issues that need to be focused in the medical faculties and the trainings of physicians and showed lack of information and need for development of attitudes regarding children's rights and informed consent in children.[¤]. (shrink)

Mandatory reporting of infectious diseases (MRID) is an essential practice to prevent disease outbreaks. Disease notification is a mandatory procedure for most infectious diseases, even during non-pandemic periods in healthcare. The main rationale behind MRID is the protection of public health. The information and data provided by infectious disease reports are used for many purposes, such as preventing the spread and potential negative impact of infectious diseases, assessing the national and global situation regarding reported diseases, conducting scientific research and planning (...) health policy. In this context, the relevant information benefits public health, health systems and scientific work. Additionally, the follow up and treatment of individuals with infectious diseases is a necessity in certain cases to protect those who cohabit with them. However, these benefits cannot be accepted as unrestricted justifications for MRID, since it is evident that reporting should be conducted within ethical and legal boundaries. MRID should only be devised and implemented with due regard to balancing potential benefits between all individuals, as well as between the individual and the rest of society. Disease notification systems that are not designed with a balancing and harm-reductionist approach may lead to stigmatisation and discrimination. This study aims to investigate the legal framework and ethical issues regarding the reporting of individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in Turkey—which is a primary example of a developing country. (shrink)

The recent Covid-19 global health crisis not only brings into sharp relief the current problems afflicting the international intellectual property regime (IIPR) but also calls into question its legitimacy as an international authority. Against this backdrop, the article aims to launch an investigation into the legitimacy of the IIPR, as an international co-ordinative authority, designed to protect IP rights without prejudice to international trade norms. Drawing on Raz’s service conception of authority, it explores whether the IIPR lives up to its (...) promises by enabling co-ordination between states over IP rights without undermining the initial balance on which it is founded, struck between developing and developed countries, as well as between international protection of IP- cum-trade rights and domestic regulatory autonomy. It does so by classifying the historical evolution of the IIPR under three different phases: (i) its foundation, (ii) before, and (iii) after the TRIPS-plus. Upon showing the legitimacy challenges inherent in its undemocratic foundation, the article points to the success of the regime in finding a balance between conflicting interests before the TRIPS-plus era. Later, it underlines the many challenges that come with linking the IIPR to the investment regime and argues that the FTAs and frequent regime-shifting activities put further pressure on the authority and legitimacy of the regime. Stressing the importance of democratic participation for the legitimacy of any co-ordinative authority, the article casts doubt on the IIPR’s legitimacy and concludes by raising some points to overcome the ongoing legitimacy challenges. -/- . (shrink)

This article examines popular cinema’s interactions with digital culture, focusing on cinema and social structure. A product of technological and social developments, digital culture has introduced the creation of cyberspace, the emergence and spread of social media, and the formation of virtual communities. This article focuses on a specific period (1980 – 2010) to examine the evolution in cinema of portrayals of digital culture. The analysis includes four influential films: WarGames (1983, by John Badham), Perfect Blue (1997, by Satoshi Kon), (...) Pulse (2001, by Kiroshi Kurosawa), and Life in a Day (2011, by Kevin Macdonald, Loressa Clisby, and Tegan Bukowski). The article provides a guide to popular cinema's interaction with and use of the possibilities offered by digital culture, revealing how the four selected films reflect digital culture themes. Each film demonstrates different aspects and dynamics of digital culture at a particular time, offering a unique look at that period's social and technological landscape through its portrayal of technological developments, human relations, cultural values, and social norms. Each film evaluates the impact of the digitization process on cinema from different perspectives, depicting how cinema adapts and responds to technological changes. (shrink)

This study examines technological horror films focusing mainly on social media-themed films that feed people’s anxieties. The study examines social media-themed films’ place, importance, and effect on people’s lives and explains social media-themed films using the concept of technological determinism. The study considers social media, characters, and the universe, arguing that horror films are moving away from the natural universe and increasingly taking place in a virtual universe. The evolutionary angle of this paper explores how horror cinema has evolved to (...) reflect societal changes, with a particular focus on the influence of social media on the genre. This discussion delves into the ways in which horror films have adapted to the digital age and how they mirror our shifting anxieties and fears. With technological advances, anxiety is experienced in a more abstract universe, lending new shapes to people’s fears and adding complexity to the relationship between the horror film and the audience. (shrink)

Background: Moral distress is a major problem in nursing profession. Researchers identified that the stronger the ethical basis of the organization, the less moral distress is reported. However, different ethical climates may have different impacts on moral distress. Moreover, conceptualization of moral distress and ethical climate as well as their relationship may change according to the cultural context. Objectives: The main aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between different types of ethical climate as described in Victor and (...) Cullen’s framework, and moral distress intensity among nurses in Turkish healthcare settings. Research design: An online survey was administrated to collect data. Questionnaires included moral distress and ethical climate scales in addition to demographic questions. Participants and research context: Data were collected from registered nurses in Turkey. In all, 201 of 279 nurses completed questionnaires, resulting in a response rate of 72%. Ethical considerations: Ethical approval was obtained from the university to which the authors were affiliated, after a detailed investigation of the content and data collection method. Findings: Factor analyses showed that moral distress had three dimensions, namely, organizational constraints, misinformed and over-treated patients, and lack of time and resources, while ethical climate had four types, namely, rules, well-being of stakeholders, individualism, and organizational interests. Positive correlations were identified between certain types of ethical climate (rules, individualism, or organizational interests) and moral distress intensity. Discussion: Factor distribution of the scales shows some commonalities with the findings of previous research. However, context-specific dimensions and types were also detected. No particular ethical climate type was found to have a negative correlation with moral distress. Conclusion: Recommendations were made for reducing the negative impact of ethical climate on moral distress. These include solving the nursing-shortage problem, increasing autonomy, and improving physical conditions. (shrink)

This article attempts a critical conversation between Kafka's _Der Prozess_ (posthumously published in 1925, translated into English as _The Trial_ in 1937) and two novels from the Mediterranean Basin. The Turkish author Bilge Karasu's _Gece_ (1985, translated into English as _Night_ by Güneli Gün in 1994) responds to the national conflicts intensified by the military coup in Türkiye (Turkey) in the 1980s with its dark portrayal of political conspiracies and unhinged violence. Almost thirty years later, Aziz conveys a similar sense (...) of social chaos and political disillusionment: her novel _Al-Ṭābūr_ (2013, translated into English as _The Queue_ Elisabeth Jaquette in 2016) addresses the aftermath of the 2011 Egypt uprising. In addition to the social critique that shapes the dystopian allegories of the novels, Kayı_ş_cı Akkoyun examines the discursive conflicts and gaps through which Kafka, Karasu, and Aziz expose the constructed nature of oppressive structures and the arbitrariness of authority. She argues that the disjointed dystopian narratives of Kafka, Karasu, and Aziz not only portray the horrors witnessed at a particular place and time but also share a common utopian vision that extends to the future through the authors' imaginative struggle against totalizing forces of uneven modernization. (shrink)

Cognitive Science, Volume 46, Issue 2, February 2022.

Background: Since the increasingly complex structure of health care services brings many ethical problems, it is important to use different instructional technologies in the ethical education of future nurses. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of role play prepared with video support on ethical decision-making and motivation levels of nursing students. Research design: A quasi-experimental study with pretest-posttest design. Participants and research context: The research was conducted in the Nursing Department of a University located in (...) Istanbul, Turkey between October 15 and November 15, 2024. The sample of the research consisted of 3rd year nursing students. Data were collected using the Descriptive Characteristics Form, the Nursing Dilemma Test, and the Instructional Material Motivation Scale for Single-Use. Ethical considerations: Permission was obtained from Bezmialem Vakif University Non-Interventional Ethical Research Committee and the institution where the study was conducted for the implementation of the research. Written and verbal consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. Findings: While there was no difference between the students’ Ethical Dilemma Test Principled Thinking pre-test and post-test scores, their Practical Consideration ( p =.005) and motivation levels ( p =.037) post-test scores were found to be higher. There was a weak but significant negative correlation between academic achievement and pre-test teaching material motivation levels (r = −0.375, p =.041). Discussion: The use of different teaching methods and techniques in ethics education in nursing is important for future nurses to find more practical solutions to the ethical problems they will encounter during patient care. Conclusion: The results of the study indicate that the use of video-supported role play can be effective in teaching ethics courses in nursing education. (shrink)

19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren, Eski Yakın Doğu coğrafyasında önemli arkeolojik keşiflerin yapılması ve başta Gılgamış Destanı olmak üzere Sümer, Akad, Babil ve Asur geleneklerine ait çeşitli efsaneleri içeren tabletlerin gün yüzüne çıkarılmasıyla birlikte Mezopotamya efsanelerinin Tevrat hikayeleri ile benzerliği Batı akademisinde bilinir hale gelmiştir. Tevrat hikayeleri ile Mezopotamya efsaneleri arasındaki benzerlik konusunda Batı’da son iki asırda önemli çalışmalar ortaya konmuş ve bunların bir kısmı farklı ölçülerde Türkçe literatüre de aktarılmıştır. Zira Mezopotamya efsaneleri ile bariz benzerlik taşıyan söz konusu Tevrat (...) hikayelerinin önemli bir kısmı, özellikle yaratılış ve Nuh tufanı anlatıları, peygamber kıssaları bağlamında Kur’ân’da da az veya çok farkla yer almaktadır. 20. yüzyıl başlarından itibaren Batı’da ortaya konan çalışmalardaki yaygın görüş, tıpkı Tevrat’tan ödünç alındığı kabul edilen Kur’ân kıssaları gibi Tevrat kıssalarının da orijinal anlatılar olmadığı, Mezopotamya efsanelerinden etkilenerek oluşturulduğu yönündedir. Zincirleme bir ödünç alma trafiği doğrultusunda daha önce tarih sahnesine çıkan geleneğin daima ödünç veren unsur, daha sonra tarih sahnesine çıkan geleneğin ise daima ödünç alan unsur kabul edildiği bu tek yönlü bakış açısının gerisinde, kronolojik ve kimi zaman da teolojik veya ideolojik olarak nitelendirebileceğimiz bir şartlanmanın yer aldığı görülmektedir. Bu arka plan ekseninde bu makalenin temel amacı Mezopotamya efsaneleri ile Tevrat kıssaları arasındaki bariz benzerlikle alakalı olarak mevcut çalışmalarda değinilmemiş bazı hususlara işaret etmek, aynı zamanda söz konusu metinler arasında her zaman tek yönlü değil kimi zaman karşılıklı etkinin olabileceğini belli örnekler üzerinden ortaya koymaktır. Bu bağlamda makalede Tevrat metni, Gılgamış Destanı ve Büyük Sargon efsaneleri üzerinden, Gılgamış-Enkidu ve Yakup-Esav çiftleri ile ilgili anlatılar, sepete konup nehre bırakılan ve mucizevi biçimde ölümden kurtularak bir kahraman haline gelen bebek anlatıları ve paralel tufan anlatıları inceleme konusu yapılmaktadır. Bu kapsamda konunun Kur’ân kıssaları ile bağlantısı da önem taşımaktadır. Makalenin bir diğer amacı da, suya bırakılan bebek ve tufan anlatıları üzerinden, Tevrat için muhtemel ve hatta kimi zaman kesin görünen etkileşimin Kur’ân kıssaları için de geçerli olup olmadığına, anlatılar arasındaki benzerliğin her zaman etki üzerinden açıklanıp açıklanamayacağına dair değerlendirmelerde bulunmaktır. (shrink)

The question of how to legitimize authority is generally addressed with reference to Raz’s service conception of authority. Yet, his functional explanation does not concern itself with how authoritative institutions are empowered at the outset. Even though Raz’s monistic account of authority is coupled with input legitimacy and pluralized with Waldron’s analysis of the inter-institutional allocation of authority, it does not assist us in inter-legal situations. As inter-legality is a theory oriented towards finding legitimate ways of legal intersection, this article (...) aims at showing how authorities between different legal orders may engage in a legitimate relationship. In doing so, it benefits from Roughan’s pluralistic and relational account of authority coupled with a conjunctive justification thesis. (shrink)

The rise of populism and its consequences – such as democratic backsliding, the erosion of constitutional principles, and the weakening of the rule of law – are among the most pressing issues facing comparative constitutional scholars today. To address these emerging challenges, the Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendment Doctrine (UCAD) has emerged as the most promising remedy for the “third counterwave of democracy”. However, a fundamental problem with UCAD is how to apply it effectively without undermining constitutional democracy, as it is often (...) criticised and deemed illegitimate from the perspective of democratic principles. (shrink)

Bilimcilik farklı disiplinlerde doğa bilimleri yöntemlerinin kullanılması gerektiğinin ileri sürüldüğü felsefî bir yaklaşımdır. Güvenilir bilgiyi sağlayabilecek yegâne yolun doğa bilimlerinin yöntemi olduğu iddiası nedeniyle bilimcilik metodolojik bir yaklaşımdır ve ontolojik önkabulleri içerir. Ancak bilimci argümanın zaman yönünden başlangıcı epistemik inanışların oluşumudur, bu nedenle bilimciliğe yönelik değerlendirme ve eleştirinin epistemolojiden başlaması makuldür. Zira bilimcilik öncelikle belirli bir konu hakkındaki inanışın neye dayandırılması gerektiği sorusunun bir cevabı olmak bakımından epistemolojik bir iddiadır. Bilimciliğin epistemik ilkesi bilgi kavramının sadece bilimsel bilgiden ibaret olduğudur. Bu (...) ilkenin kabulü ile kişi doğruya sadece doğa bilimleri aracılığıyla ulaşılabileceğini önvarsayar. Ancak doğa bilimlerinin konu edindiği olgu dünyası ile insan zihni arasındaki bilgi için temel sayılan ilişki, felsefî kabuller ve kavramlar tarafından biçimlendirilmiştir. Kesin doğru olarak kabul edilebilecek zorunlu önermelerin aksine bilimsel önermeler aklın zorunlu doğruları gibi görünmemektedirler. Bu çalışmada epistemik kesinlik dikkate alınarak bilimciliğin temeline yerleştirilebilecek epistemik ilkesi eleştirilmekte ve onun neden doğru olmadığı ortaya konulmaktadır. (shrink)

This chapter examines military building activity in the region in the light of Ottoman sources preserved in the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archive in Istanbul and memoirs written by the senior bureaucrats of the Empire. It aims to assess whether the military building programme of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued in later periods in the same spirit as in the earlier time of conquests and expansion, or if the empire only supported repairs of existing strongholds. The issue was noted by (...) numerous Ottoman writers as early as the Koçi Bey Risalesi in the seventeenth century. This chapter examines four frontier areas of the Ottoman Empire: the Hapsburg borderland in Croatia; the frontier between Montenegro and southern Herzegovina; the fortress line on the banks of the Danube in Wallachia; and the Danube Delta region near the Black Sea. (shrink)

A two-systems model of moral judgment proposed by Joshua Greene holds that deontological moral judgments (those based on simple rules concerning action) are often primary and intuitive, and these intuitive judgments must be overridden by reflection in order to yield utilitarian (consequence-based) responses. For example, one dilemma asks whether it is right to push a man onto a track in order to stop a trolley that is heading for five others. Those who favor pushing, the utilitarian response, usually take longer (...) to respond than those who oppose pushing. Greene's model assumes an asymmetry between the processes leading to different responses. We consider an alternative model based on the assumption of symmetric conflict between two response tendencies. By this model, moral dilemmas differ in the "difficulty" of giving a utilitarian response and subjects differ in the "ability" (tendency) to give such responses. (We could just as easily define ability in terms of deontological responses, as the model treats the responses symmetrically.) We thus make an analogy between moral dilemmas and tests of cognitive ability, and we apply the Rasch model, developed for the latter, to estimate the ability-difficulty difference for each dilemma for each subject. We apply this approach to five data sets collected for other purposes by three of the co-authors. Response time (RT), including yes and no responses, is longest when difficulty and ability match, because the subject is indifferent between the two responses, which also have the same RT at this point. When we consider yes/no responses, RT is longest when the model predicts that the response is improbable. Subjects with low ability take longer on the "easier" dilemmas, and vice versa. (shrink)