History of science students will want to read this book. Professor Zuo animates the life, career, and thought of SHEN Gua in this delightful historical, biographical work. SHEN Gua embodied the classical spirit of the scholar-official during the Song dynasty. Shen is the author of Brush Talks from Dream Brook, a canonical text in the study of the history of science in China and in the Notebook style of writing. Zuo argues, using a double-narrative structure, that Shen’s intellectual life and (...) career are fused in his scientific empiricism. This book is a complete study containing a List of Tables and Figures, three pages of Acknowledgments, a List of terms. (shrink)

In my chapter, I explore from a historical perspective the Neo-Confucian understanding of wrongdoing and ethically inappropriate behavior needing correction. I follow Kwong-loi Shun (Resentment and Forgiveness in Confucian Thought. Journal of East-West Thought (4): 13–35, 2014, 15) in assuming that the virtue of forgiveness is “not developed nor idealized” in traditional Confucian thinking. Like Confucius (551–479) and other early Confucian thinkers, Neo-Confucians like Cheng Yi (1033–1107) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200) wanted the ethical agent to demonstrate mercy, pardon, leniency, and (...) compassion, but not forgiveness (in our modern sense). The main reason for the absence of such virtue is that Neo-Confucians, like their Confucian precursors, did not believe that the sage (i.e., Confucius) could injure or be injured by others; consequently, he would not need to forgive them either. Since everybody is required to emulate the sage, there is therefore no reason to develop the virtue of forgiveness. Nevertheless, Neo-Confucian have developed sophisticated accounts of how to respond to wrongful treatment in an ethical way; and these accounts have deeply influenced many societies in East Asia. I conclude this chapter by drawing out some broader implications of my historical survey. -/- . (shrink)

In the Chinese intellectual tradition, King Wu's military expedition and Bo Yi's (and Shu Qi's) objection to it were well known. King Wu had been admired in that he saved people by dethroning the tyrant King These seemingly contradictory evaluations open a window on how unity can be conceived in Neo-Confucianism, particularly when one is faced with the possibility of colliding values. By examining the debate between Wang Yangming (1472–1529) and Zhan Ruoshui (1466–1560) over such a complex political issue, (...) this article aims to unravel various tensions embedded in Neo-Confucian political philosophy. (shrink)

Neo-Confucianism’s understanding of the relationship between heaven and man greatly reflects their view of nature and their aesthetic pursuits. Confucianism revolves around the perfection of human virtue, and the profundity of its theory of the relationship between heaven and humanity lies in the recognition of the value of all natural things. Therefore, the Confucian view of nature and humans emphasises the Unity of Heaven and Man by virtue. The concept of ‘the Unity of Heaven and Man by virtue’ (...) unfolds the characteristic of symbiosis between humans and all things, which is manifested by the natural view of oneness of all things. The virtue of Sheng reflects the natural aesthetic consciousness of Confucianism. In Confucianism, virtue and beauty are unified, and this characteristic is mainly manifested as the beauty of ShengSheng. Sheng is not only a kind of great virtue but also a kind of great beauty, and the idea of the beauty of ShengSheng embodies the Confucian pursuit of the beauty of natural life.Contribution: This article mainly examines the relationship between humans and heaven in Neo-Confucianism. In particular, it focusses on the thought of ‘the Unity of Heaven and Man’, and analyses the natural aesthetic influence of this thought. (shrink)

Neo-Confucianism is a philosophically sophisticated tradition weaving classical Confucianism together with themes from Buddhism and Daoism. It began in China around the eleventh century CE, played a leading role in East Asian cultures over the last millennium, and has had a profound influence on modern Chinese society. -/- Based on the latest scholarship but presented in accessible language, Neo-Confucianism: A Philosophical Introduction is organized around themes that are central in Neo-Confucian philosophy, including the structure of the cosmos, (...) human nature, ways of knowing, personal cultivation, and approaches to governance. The authors thus accomplish two things at once: they present the Neo-Confucians in their own, distinctive terms; and they enable contemporary readers to grasp what is at stake in the great Neo-Confucian debates. (shrink)

If Z hu Xi had been a western philosopher, we would say he synthesized the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus: that he took from Plato the theory of forms, from Aristotle the connection between form and empirical investigation, and from Plotinus self-differentiating holism. But because a synthesis abstracts from the incompatible elements of its members, it involves rejection as well as inclusion. Thus, Z hu Xi does not accept the dualism by which Plato opposed to the rational forms an (...) irrational material principle, and does not share Aristotle’s irreducible dualism between form and prime matter, or his teleology. Neither does he share Plotinus’ indifference to the empirical world. Understanding how these similarities and differences play out against one another will help us discover what is at stake in their various commitments. (shrink)

These essays explore the continuities and discontinuities between the Neo-Confucian thought of Ming China and early Tokugawa Japan and the "practical learning" of the 17th and 18th centuries, underlining the need for a deeper examination of the complex relationship between "traditional" and "modern" thoughts and values.

Where does Neo-Confucianismâe"a movement that from the twelfth to the seventeenth centuries profoundly influenced the way people understood the world and responded to itâe"fit into our story of Chinaâe(tm)s history? This interpretive, at times polemical, inquiry into the Neo-Confucian engagement with the literati as the social and political elite, local society, and the imperial state during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties is also a reflection on the role of the middle period in Chinaâe(tm)s history. The book argues that as (...) Neo-Confucians put their philosophy of learning into practice in local society, they justified a new social ideal in which society at the local level was led by the literati with state recognition and support. The later imperial order, in which the state accepted local elite leadership as necessary to its own existence, survived even after Neo-Confucianism lost its hold on the center of intellectual culture in the seventeenth century but continued as the foundation of local education. It is the contention of this book that Neo-Confucianism made that order possible. (shrink)

유학(특히 신유학)은 인간의 몸과 마음의 관계, 마음의 작용과 기능, 마음의 수양법 등에 대해 매우 적극적 관심을 가진 동아시아의 가장 주요한 전통 인문학이었다. 더불어 유학의 성격 그 자체는 치료적(therapeutic)이며 ‘치유적’이라고 할 수 있다. 그리고 그 치유법으로서 정좌라고 하면 중국 송대의 신유학자들이 제시한 심신 수양방법의 하나로 마음을 고요히 가라앉히고 적연부동(寂然不動)의 태도를 가짐으로써 자신의 본성을 깨닫는 것을 가리킨다. 즉 신유학(Neo-Confucianism, 도학을 포함한 송대 이후의 유학)의 심신수렴(心身收斂) 혹은 심신 수양법으로 널리 알려진 것이 정좌(靜坐)였다. 신유학의 탄생에 기여한 북송오자(北宋五子) 가운데 이정(二程) 형제가 정좌의 중요성을 설파하였고, (...) 신유학의 집대성자 주희(朱熹)도 정좌의 유교 수양법에 대해서는 매우 긍정적이었다. 이 정좌의 수양방법은 비단 신유학(성리학과 양명학 등)에서 뿐만 아니라, 불교나 도교에서도 좌선(坐禪)이나 양생(養生)의 방법으로 제시되고 있다. 그 때문에 이 수양방법은 지나치게 불교의 선학적(禪學的) 성격이 강하다는 유교계 안팎에서의 비판도 끊이지 않았다. 따라서 이 논고에서는 신유학의 정좌에 대하여 그 유교치료적 의미를 살펴보았다. 다시 말해 신유학의 정좌법과 마음 그리고 몸 등에 관한 다양한 논의, 신유학의 주요한 심신 수양법인 정좌의 양상, 신유학자들의 심신수렴과 치유적 의미, 그리고 청대 고증학의 융성 이전에 명대 유학사 혹은 명대 양명학사의 마지막을 장식하는 저명한 유학자 즙산 유종주(劉宗周)의 정좌설과 심신의 치유적 의미, 즙산 정좌설의 특징, 심신의 치유와 정좌의 관계 등에 관한 논의를 전개하였다. (shrink)

Based on lectures delivered at the Collège de France in May 1986.

According to W. V. O. Quine's received view, Rudolf Carnap's Der Logische Aufbau der Welt (henceforth Aufbau) is a radical empiricist project that attempts at reducing scientific knowledge to a phenomenalistic basis. In Quine's reading, having a phenomenalistic basis is an essential part of the thesis of the Aufbau. According to Michael Friedman, on the other hand, Aufbau is a neo-Kantian project that is primarily concerned with showing the possibility of objective and unified scientific knowledge. Thus, for Friedman, Carnap's choice (...) of phenomenalistic language is rather circumstantial. In this paper, I argue that both Quine and Friedman focus on two different aspects of the Aufbau, which as I shall suggest were equally significant and essential for Carnap's philosophical outlook at the time he was writing Aufbau. Hence, Aufbau should be appreciated for its truly ambitious objective that comprises both the radical empiricist and the neo-Kantian goals. (shrink)

주자학의 리 개념은 이해하기가 쉽지 않다. 그 때문에 지금까지 다양한 번역어가 제시 되어 왔다. 한국학계에서는 보통 ‘이치’로, 서양학계에서는 ‘질서’나 ‘패턴’ 등으로 번역되었 다. 이에 대해 윌러드 피터슨은 1986년에 쓴 ｢리에 대한 새로운 시각｣에서 ‘coherence’라 는 번역어를 제시하였다. 그 후, 피터 볼, 스테판 앵글, 브룩 지포린 등이 피터슨의 번역어 를 채택하였다. 본 논문에서는 이들의 견해를 지지하면서, ‘coherence’의 한글 번역어로 ‘어우러짐’을 사용하였다. 이들의 견해를 참고하면, 주자학에서의 리는 ‘사물이 가치 있는 방식으로 어우러져 있 는 상태”로 정의될 수 있다. 가령 의자는 인간이 앉을 수 (...) 있다는 가치를 창출하는 형태를 유지하고 있을 때 “의자로서의 리가 있다[有理]’고 주희는 말한다. 반대로 의자의 다리가 부러져서 앉을 수 없게 되면 ‘의자로서의 리를 잃었다[失理]”고 말한다. 여기서 ‘실리失理’ 는 의자 자체의 ‘어우러짐’혹은 조화가 깨져서 의자와 인간 사이의 ‘어우러짐’이 상실된 상태로 이해할 수 있다. 이로부터 확인할 수 있듯이, 주희가 말하는 리는 사물 자체의 구조뿐만 아니라 사물과 인간의 관계까지도 포괄하는 개념이다. 다시 말해, 리는 사실과 행위, 객관과 주관의 두 차 원에 모두 걸쳐있다. 따라서 리는 사물의 원리나 자연의 패턴뿐만 아니라 그것을 인식하고 실현하는 인간의 행위까지도 포괄하는 개념이다. 리에 대한 이와 같은 이해는 주자학에서 최고의 경지로 제시되는 인(仁) 개념을 파악하는 데 도움이 된다. 주희는 인(仁)을 “심지덕 (心之德) 애지리(愛之理)”라고 정의하였다. 여기에서 ‘애지리(愛之理)’는 사랑의 감정이 자연스럽게 발현되어 대상과 어우러지는 상태까지 함축하고 있다. 다시 말해 ‘사랑의 감정이 발현되는 사실’의 차원과 ‘사랑하는 대상과 어우러지는 행위’의 차원을 포괄하고 있다. 이처 럼 주자학에서 리는 사실과 행위가 어우러져서 어떤 가치를 창출하는 상태를 지칭하는 개 념이다. 이러한 이해는 주자학의 ‘리’를 단순히 ‘이치’로 번역하는 우리 학계에 새로운 시각 을 열어주리라 기대된다. (shrink)

This article analyzes the influence of Chinese Neo-Confucianism on the development of German idealism. Information obtained by Leibniz from Jesuit missionaries included key concepts in Neo-Confucian philosophy that not only confirmed Leibniz’s belief in the universality of his organic image of the cosmos but also influenced Leibniz’s later writings. Such influence is also exhibited in Kant’s work, especially in his crucial noumenon-phenomenon distinction, as well as in Hegel’s phenomenology and philosophy of history. Recognition of these influences, unacknowledged by either (...) Kant or Hegel, enhances our assessment of the import of both Neo-Confucianism and German idealism in international religio-philosophical discourse. (shrink)

Solidly grounded in Chinese primary sources, Neo Confucianism: Metaphysics, Mind, and Morality engages the latest global scholarship to provide an innovative, rigorous, and clear articulation of neo-Confucianism and its application to Western philosophy. -/- Contextualizes neo-Confucianism for contemporary analytic philosophy by engaging with today’s philosophical questions and debates Based on the most recent and influential scholarship on neo-Confucianism, and supported by primary texts in Chinese and cross-cultural secondary literature Presents a cohesive analysis of neo-Confucianism by (...) investigating the metaphysical foundations of neo-Confucian perspectives on the relationship between human nature, human mind, and morality Offers innovative interpretations of neo-Confucian terminology and examines the ideas of eight major philosophers, from Zhou Dunyi and Cheng-Zhu to Zhang Zai and Wang Fuzhi Approaches neo-Confucian concepts in an penetrating yet accessible way. (shrink)

The representatives of modern Neo-Confucianism all greatly value Yi Zhuan and regard it as one of their spiritual resources, and give their own creative interpretations and transformations. Xiong Shili's ontological-cosmological theory takes "qian yuan" as its center; Ma Yifu has a theory of ontology-cultivation centered on "nature-principle"; Fang Dongmei has a metaphysics of production and reproduction; Mou Zongsan takes the view of "completely knowing the fathomless and understanding transformation" as a moral metaphysics; and in Tang Junyi there is a (...) theory of the harmony of doctrines on Heaven and man in which "the knowledge of divine understanding" is its key concept. They employ modern philosophical concepts and thinking to illustrate the cosmology, ontology, theory of life, theory of human nature, theory of spiritual worlds, axiology and their connections in Zhou Yi. They affirm that the characteristics of Chinese philosophy that are different from Western philosophy consist in a naturalist view of vital life, a harmonious view of totality, an axiological view that values exist in natural universe and the world of fact, the pursuit of Good and Beauty, and intuitive experience of inner world. (shrink)

Using a term coined by the contemporary Chinese philosopher Mou Zongsan, we could define Zhou Dunyi's thought in terms of ‘moral metaphysics’. Zhou Dunyi, a thinker who lived in Northern Song period, developed a philosophy that shows an ontological link between the cosmic order of the universe and the human moral reality. His contribution consists of two short works, Penetrating the Book of Changes and Discussion of the Supreme Polarity Diagram. These works played a fundamental role in creating the metaphysical (...) structure of the neo-Confucian thought: Zhu Xi emphasized Zhou Dunyi's contribution to the neo-Confucian philosophy and, more precisely, he pointed out how Zhou Dunyi's ideas helped to define the conceptual framework of neo-Confucianism. Moreover, Zhu Xi legitimized Zhou Dunyi's role as the pioneer of the ‘Learning of the Way’, or the renewed neo-Confucian tradition. This paper aims to provide an overview of Zhou Dunyi's crucial role in the field of neo-Confucianism. At the same time, we stress the need for further analysis in order to fully understand the value of Zhou Dunyi's philosophy in the Song period intellectual context. (shrink)

The Great Synthesis of Wang Yangming Neo-Confucianism in Korea, a pioneering study of Chŏng Chedu (Hagok, 1649-1736) and Korean Yangming Neo-Confucianism, includes an annotated translation of the Chonŏn, Hagok's most important work on self-cultivation, and a comprehensive introduction to his life, scholarship, and thought.

The formation of the discourse of Neo-Confucianism 1 in the Song period was a result of the interactions between many social and cultural trends. In the development of the Neo-Confucian discourse, the Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) played key roles with their charismatic thoughts and impelling personalities, while Zhu Xi pushed Neo-Confucian thought and discourse to a pinnacle with his broad knowledge and precise reasoning. In the warm discussions and debates between different schools and thoughts, the Neo-Confucian (...) discourse proceeded towards completion and perfection, and evolved as contemporary topics and thinking modes changed. The essay argues that “ ding xing 定性 (stilling the nature)” was an important Neo-Confucian topic during the Song period. The doctrine of “stilling the nature” involves much central Neo-Confucian discourse such as the definition of xing 性 (human nature), the interior and exterior aspects of human nature, nature and qing 情 (feelings, sentiments), nature and xin 心 (mind, heart), nature and ren 仁 (benevolence, humanity, humaneness) and yi 义 (righteousness), nature and shi 事 (affair) or wu 物 (thing, object), the practice of preservation and cultivation, etc. Therefore, an examination of the formation, development and evolution of Neo-Confucianism is of great importance to the study of its early history. (shrink)

본 논문은 비록 시험적 단계에 불과하지만, 마음에 대한 성리학적 개념들을 형식적으로 기술하여 컴퓨터에서 다룰 수 있는 형태로 구성할 수 있을 것인가를 검토하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 필자는 도덕적 마음의 작용에 관해 논의한 내용을 바탕으로 성리학적 도덕행위자구현을 위한 시뮬레이션이 가능한가를 논의해 보았다.BR 성리학에서 마음의 개념을 설명할 때, 본체인 선천적 도덕 능력에 주목하는가 아니면 현실적으로 작용한 마음의 도덕성 여부에 주목하는가에 따라 개념화의 방식이 달라질 수 있다. 필자는 후자에 가까운 율곡의 관점이 상대적으로 경험주의적이라고 보고, 마음을 실물처럼, 몸처럼 명백하게 설명하려고 했다는 점이 인공적 도덕행위자(AMA, Artificial (...) Moral Agent) 토론에 참여하는 데 용이하지 않을까 하여 예시로 삼아 보았다.BR 율곡은 마음의 작용을 기(氣)의 ‘자동적 패턴[機自爾]’으로 설명하면서, 그 패턴이 도덕적 원리로 작동되도록 하는 수양방법을 제시했다. 그래서 필자는 우선 ‘자동적 패턴[機自爾]’이라 했던 기(氣)의 작용이 마음에서 어떻게 전개되는가를 분석하고, 그 다음에 마음의 도덕적 작용, 즉 도덕원리의 우선적 발현을 정형화할 수 있는가를 검토해보았다.BR 나아가, 검토의 과정에서 인공적 도덕행위자 논쟁의 쟁점 중 하나인 무의식적 도덕성이 수기(修己)의 차원에서는 용납될 수 없지만, 치인(治人)의 차원에서는 가능하다는 판단 하에, 필자는 비인격적 모델인 치인(治人) 시스템에 관한 논의를 위해 율곡의 정치개혁론을 검토해보았다. 이러한 시론으로 성리학적 인공적 도덕행위자 구현 가능성에 대한 본격적인 토론이 촉발될 수 있기를 기대한다. (shrink)

The primary aim of Jeong Do-jeon’s criticism of Buddhism is, like Mencius, to promote both political and moral actions based on the virtues of Confucianism. In a similar way to Mencius’ denouncement of heretical discourses, Jeong Do-jeon thinks that the disapproval of Buddhism is indispensable for accomplishing the ways of Sages-that is, for effectuating the virtues of Confucianism. Rather than an intellectual debate against Buddhism, Jeong Do-jeon’s criticism of Buddhism is done in the context of political movement, to (...) incorporate Neo-Confucianism as a national ideology. His disapproval, followed and enhanced the discourses of former Confucianists - Zhang Zai, Cheng Brothers, and Zhu Xi - displays both distinctive criticism of Buddhism and better understanding of Neo-Confucianism than other relevant Neo-Confucianists of the Joseon Dynasty. In his book Bulsi-japbyeon 佛氏雜辨, Jeong underlines that Neo-Confucianism, which is based on the concrete facts unlike Buddhism, has realistic practicality, and maintains that the ontological foundation of human morality exists by showing the distinction between the nature(性) and the mind(心). Jeong’s argument has two implications: first, it sheds light on the living moral agent even in fluctuating political conditions; second, it shows that Jeong did not simply reiterate Zhu Xi’s criticism of Buddhism but, based on his particular systematic understanding of overall aspects of Neo-Confucianism, Jeong did criticize Buddhism in his own way. From this point of view, it could be understood that Jeong Do-jeon’s disapproval of Buddhism focuses on the realistic value of the virtues of Confucianism and its actual practice, unlike his predecessors of the Song dynasty who focused on human nature, mind and self-cultivation. (shrink)

Within the grand river of China's contemporary thought, a tributary of neo-Confucianism has emerged alongside the mainstreams of science, democracy, and socialist thought. To start with, there was Liang Shuming, who bucked the current during the time of the New Cultural Movement. At the time, he wrote the book Dongxi wenhua ji qi zhexue . In so doing, he affirmed the cultural value of Confucianist thinking in modern society. Following in Liang's footsteps, Zhang Junmai, Feng Youlan, He Lin, Xiong (...) Shili, and others also wrote treatises and offered teachings that had the effect of reforming Confucianism by injecting it with new content, and striving to make it more responsive to the needs of contemporary society. In this way, neo-Confucianism has slowly become a noticeable intellectual current. Since the liberation of the mainland of China, the theory of neo-Confucianism has been further enriched and developed to a certain extent through the efforts of a number of scholars in Hong Kong and Taiwan, such as Tang Junyi, Mou Zongsan, Xu Fuguan, and Qian Mu. In the sixty-odd years since the 1920s, the neo-Confucianist thinkers have published more than a hundred volumes on the subject, and have created a plethora of systems of philosophy and theories, each carrying its own characteristics. Today, neo-Confucianism has become one of the major schools of philosophy in Hong Kong and Taiwan, and has also had a considerable impact in the United States. We can no longer ignore its existence; indeed, the resurrection of Confucianism, at one time considered unlikely to succeed, appears to have become a reality. (shrink)

Huang's book analyzes the major Neo-Confucian philosophers from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries. Focusing on metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical philosophical issues, this study presents the historical development of the Neo-Confucian school, an outgrowth of ancient Confucianism, and characterizes its thought, background, and influence. Key concepts—for example ^Utai-ji (supreme ultimate), ^Uxin (mind), and ^Uren (humanity)—as interpreted by each thinker are discussed in detail. Also examined are the two major schools that developed during this period, Cheng-Zhu, School of Principle, and (...) Lu-Wang, School of Mind. These schools, despite different philosophical orientations, were convinced that their common goal, to bring about a harmonious relationships between man and the universe and between man and man, could be achieved through different ways of philosophizing. To understand the Chinese mind, it is necessary to understand Neo-Confucianism as a reformation of early Confucianism. This analytical presentation of major Neo-Confucian philosophers, from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, examines Zhou Dun-yi (1017-1073), Shao Yong (1011-1077), Zhang Zai (1020-1077), Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107), Zhu Xi (1130-1200), Lu Xiang-shan (1139-1193), and Wang Yang-ming (1427-1529). With its focus on metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical philosophical issues, Huang's study presents the historical development of the Neo-Confucian school, an outgrowth of ancient Confucianism, and characterizes its thought, background, and influence. Key concepts—for example, ^Utai-ji (supreme ultimate), ^Uxin (mind), and ^Uren (humanity)—as interpreted by each thinker are discussed in detail. The two major schools that developed during these six centuries are examined as well. Lu-Wang, School of Mind, developed in criticism of Cheng-Zhu, School of Principle. The two schools, despite different approaches toward their philosophical pursuits, were convinced that their common goals, to bring about harmonious relationships between man and the universe and between man and man, could be achieved through different ways of philosophizing. To understand the Chinese mind, it is necessary to understand Neo-Confucianism as a reformation of early Confucianism. Scholars of Eastern religions and philosophy will appreciate the objective interpretations of each thinker's philosophy, for which pertinent passages spoken by each man have been selected and translated by the author from the original Chinese, and the comparisons of the Neo-Confucian philosophies with those of the West. An introduction provides the historical background in which to study the rise of Neo-Confucianism. The study is organized ehronologically and includes a glossary of terms and a bibliography which serves as a helpful guide for further research. (shrink)

Tian 天 is central to the metaphysics, cosmology, and ethics of the 800-year-long Chinese philosophical tradition we call “Neo-Confucianism,” but there is considerable confusion over what tian means—confusion which is exacerbated by its standard translation into English as “Heaven.” This essay analyzes the meaning of tian in the works of the most influential Neo-Confucian, Zhu Xi 朱熹, presents a coherent interpretation that unifies the disparate aspects of the term’s meaning, and argues that “cosmos” does an excellent job of capturing (...) this meaning and therefore should be adopted as our translation of tian. (shrink)

This article attempts to explain through the lens of the Five Relationships the meaning of Joseon neo-Confucian view which emphasized relationship development as the aim and contents of education. In neo-Confucianism, education is the task of guiding learners in cultivating and unfolding capabilities in the relationships of everyday life. Within the context of neo-Confucianism, the development of competency in relationships was another expression of the educational goal of actualizing the ‘original nature’ including of the four virtues. Understanding the (...) nature of education to be the embodiment of the original nature, neo-Confucian scholars sought its actual manifestation in everyday life, taking the practice of five particular relationships to be the core method. Encompassing both ‘knowing’ and ‘doing’ while progressing from the Elementary Learning into the Great Learning, neo-Confucian education characteristically takes the Five Relationships as both its foundation and its outcome. Despite the p... (shrink)

ABSTRACTThe proper role of intuitions in philosophy has been debated throughout its history, and especially since the turn of the twenty-first century. The context of this recent debate within analytic philosophy has been the heightened interest in intuitions as data points that need to be accommodated or explained away by philosophical theories. This, in turn, has given rise to a sceptical movement called experimental philosophy, whose advocates seek to understand the nature and reliability of such intuitions. Yet such scepticism of (...) intuition or introspective methods can be found in earlier periods and across philosophical traditions. Indeed, the Neo-Confucian philosophers of the Song and Ming dynasties seem to exemplify this very tension, as they can be divided into an intuitionistic school on the one hand and an investigative school on the other. In this paper, I argue that, notwithstanding some obvious d... (shrink)

I explore the features of universalist thinking in the work of Zhu X i, examining the following: the importance of li in Zhu Xi's cosmology and ethics; the course of moral development of a Confucian sage and the spheres of expanding identity and responsibility; the ideal of impartiality in achieving a composure of unity with the world; and the ideal of differentiated love as an expression of living in accord with li and xing. I conclude with some critical observations regarding (...) these major features of Zhu Xi's universalism, noting some hazards of such cross-cultural analysis, and acknowledging general problems facing the non-pluralistic perspective of his work. (shrink)

현대신유학은 5.4운동 이후 중국사상의 근본정신 계승을 토대로 서양사상을 받아들여 중국의 현실적 문제를 해결할 것을 주장하며 형성된 학파이다. 중국의 학술계는 현대신유학을 마르크스주의, 자유주의와 함께 중국근(현)대 3대사상으로 지칭한다. 1949년 중화인민공화국 성립이후 현대신유학자들은 대부분 홍콩, 대만 등지로 옮겨 활동하면서 그들의 철학과 문화보수주의를 이어갔다. 1978년 이전에는 금기시되었던 이들 사상은 1980년대 중반 현대신유학자들이 중국에서 활발한 강연, 저술 활동을 펼치면서 다시 주목받게 된다. 그리고 현대신유학에 대한 대규모의 연구가 1987년 국가의 지원을 받아 진행된다. ‘전통과 현대화’의 문제를 고민하고 있던 중국은 현대신유학에 대한 연구를 통해 전통의 고양과 현대적 전화의 (...) 가능성을 찾고자 했던 것이다.중국의 현대신유학 연구는 학술적으로는 단절되었던 전통사상을 계승하고 그 현대적 전화를 모색하는 것, 사회적으로는 이를 통해 자본주의의 폐단을 차단하고 통제하는 것, 정치적으로 사회주의의 중국화를 강화하는 것 등을 목적으로 한다. 1980년대 현대신유학 연구는 이러한 목적을 위한 초보단계로 주로 현대신유가의 사상을 소개, 정리, 이해하는 것에 집중된다. 그리고 이는 마르크스주의자들에 의해 주도되고, 마르크스주의의 입장, 관점, 방법을 견지하며 진행된다. 짧은 시간 안에 이루어진 수용과 이해라는 한계를 지니고 있지만, 1980년대 현대신유학 연구는 현대신유가 사상을 보급하고, 전통의 비판적 계승에 관한 논의를 확대하고, 현대화가 곧 서구화를 의미하는 것만은 아니라는 인식을 제고하는 등의 성과가 있었다. (shrink)

The call for "doing right things on behalf of Heaven" made by Sung Chiang, the hero of the Chinese novel Shui hu [Water Margin], has long been welcomed by some people. They think that a right thing should be defined as the "revolutionary course" or the "reason" by which rebellions can be justified and that "doing right things on behalf of Heaven" is an antigovernment slogan. They are wrong. As has been clearly demonstrated in Shui hu, right things refer to (...) the Confucian-Mencian doctrine and Neo-Confucianism in the Sung and Ming dynasties. Hanging out the white flag of reactionary Neo-Confucianism, Sung Chiang carries out the capitulationist line and buries the peasant uprising. (shrink)

Virtue ethics has become an important rival to deontology and consequentialism, the two dominant moral theories in modern Western philosophy. What unites various forms of virtue ethics and distinguishes virtue ethics from its rivals is its emphasis on the primacy of virtue. In this article, I start with an explanation of the primacy of virtue in virtue ethics and two dilemmas, detected by Gary Watson, that virtue ethics faces: (1) virtue ethics may maintain the primacy of virtue and thus leave (...) virtue non-explanatory, or it may attempt to explain virtue in terms of something else and thus render virtue secondary at most; (2) the explanation of virtue may be objective and thus become morally indeterminate, or it may be normative and thus lack objectivity, merely re-expressing the virtue it intends to explain (Section II). After showing the failure of both classical Aristotelian and contemporary neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics to escape these dilemmas, I turn to the ethical theory of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200)—the greatest synthesizer of neo-Confucianism, whose place in Confucianism is comparable to that of Thomas Aquinas in the Christian tradition—to show how it can successfully avoid both dilemmas. (shrink)