1. Sae sidae rŭl yŏrŏ gan saramdŭl -- 2. Ŏdum ŭi sidae.

★ 추천사 이 글묵(책)은 ‘말뜸’이다. 말을 하되 온몸으로 하는 말, 다시 말해 문제의 제기요, 해결이다. 이 글묵은 ‘길내(과학)’의 샘이다. 원효와 마르크스, 두 사상가를 마주 앉히되 둘이 걸치고 있는 모든 것, 사상과 이론뿐이랴, 권위와 명예, 품새까지 홀랑 벗겨 신자유주의의 폭학과 만행에 정면으로 부대끼게 했다. 이 글묵은 ‘한내’다. 일꾼들의 몸에서 배어 나오는 땀 한 방울, 피 한 방울, 눈물 한 방울이 모여서 큰 흘떼(강)를 일구는, 이 우주를 이르는. —백기완 (통일문제연구소 소장) 필자는 사회적 문제의식이 충만한 인문학자이자 우리 사회의 진보를 위해 싸워온 실천적 지식인이다. (...) 그는 원효와 마르크스의 대화에 기반을 두고 대중의 눈부처-주체로의 등장과, 탐욕과 착취의 자본주의를 끝장내고 새로운 코뮌적 공동체로의 이행을 모색한다. 진보의 문제를 근원적으로 성찰해보길 바라는 모든 분께 일독을 권한다. —김세균 (정의당 공동대표, 서울대 명예교수) 정의와 평화를 향한 이도흠 교수의 신념과 열정은 금생만의 것이 아닌 듯하다. 국문학자이며 불교학자이기도 한 저자는 해박한 인문학적 지식을 바탕으로 줄기차게 이론과 실천의 종합을 꾀하며 ‘거리의 인문학자’ ‘행동하는 지식인’으로 자리매김한 지 이미 오래다. 인간이 한낱 자본의 노예로 전락하고 환경재앙과 경제공황의 유령이 출몰하는 이 위기의 시대에 저자는 이제 ‘원효와 마르크스의 대화’를 통해 한 줄기 푸른 희망의 바람을 풀어놓는다. —박경준 (동국대 불교학과 교수, 전 불교학연구회 회장) 이 책은 무엇보다도 이 시대가 당면한 절실한 주제를 매우 성실하고 포괄적으로, 그리고 깊이 있게 논의하고 있다. 학문이 현실 문제를 도외시하고 다만 순수한 이론적 탐색에 머물러 있을 것이란 편견을 송두리째 깨는 이론적 작업이 이 책임은 두말할 필요가 없다. 그는 글을 위한 글을 쓰지 않는다. 현장으로 달려가 아파하고 공감하고, 함께하면서 이를 성찰하고 이론적 작업을 거쳐 글을 쓴다. 그의 글에는 부족함이 있을지언정 거짓이나 꾸밈은 없다. 그래서 그의 글은 믿을 수 있다. 나는 남김없이, 또 주저 없이 이 책을 권한다. 이제는 한계에 이른 이 시대를 넘어설 새로운 사유의 계기를 볼 수 있기를 바란다. —신승환 (가톨릭대 철학과 교수, 전 한국하이데거학회 회장) ★ 책 소개 자본주의에 물든 ‘지금, 여기’에 대한 원효와 마르크스의 시대진단, 새로운 대안의 패러다임 ‘거리의 인문학자’ ‘행동하는 지식인’으로 불리며 노동자의 편에 서서 그들을 대변하며 싸워온 한양대 국문학과 이도흠 교수. 그동안 4대강사업 반대운동, 희망버스와 쌍용자동차 해고노동자 복직운동, 세월호 참사 등 한국 교수 가운데 집회와 투쟁 현장에 가장 많이 참여하며 한국 사회 변혁에 앞장서온 이도흠 교수가 오랜 세월간의 고민과 현장에서의 투쟁을 아로새긴 신간 『원효와 마르크스의 대화』(자음과모음, 뉴아카이브 총서)를 내놓았다. 이 책은 자본주의에 물든 ‘지금, 여기’에 대한 통렬한 시대진단이자 인간다운 삶, 진정한 공동체적 사회를 모색하는 한 사람의 도저한 사유와 글쓰기, 치열한 투쟁의 흔적이다. 책의 부제인 ‘인류의 위기에 대한’에서 알 수 있듯 저자는 우리 사회에 일어나는 모든 문제의 원인이 자본주의에 있고, 이 자본주의의 병폐로부터 벗어나는 것이 중요하다고 이야기한다. 그리고 서양과 동양 이론에서 일어난 각각의 문제를 서로의 장점으로 아우르고 적용하며 실천하는 것에서 인간다운 삶의 구현이 가능하며, 이에 대한 방편으로 원효와 마르크스라는 두 사상가를 과감히 마주 앉히고 대화를 시도한다. 일견 이질적으로 보이는 이 두 사상가의 대화를 저자가 시도한 까닭은, 마르크시즘을 비롯한 서양 이론이 지닌 실체론과 이분법, 동일성의 문제를 불교의 연기론과 퍼지(fuzzy)식 논리, 차이의 사유를 통해 새로운 그릇에 담을 수 있기 때문이고, 관념론에 치우쳐 과학성과 합리성을 결여한 불교의 문제를 과학적이고 합리적인 분석과 방법론을 지향하는 마르크스와 서양 이론을 통해 유심론과 유물론을 아우를 수 있기 때문이다. 원효와 마르크스의 대화를 통해 결국 저자는 ‘서로가 깊은 연관을 맺고서 찰나의 순간에도 서로 조건이 되고 영향을 미치고 의지하며 서로를 만들어주는 상호생성자(inter-becoming)’로서의 삶, ‘타인을 생성시키고 타자의 아픔에 공감하며 자기 안의 인간다운 본성을 형성하는 눈부처-주체’로서의 삶을 살기를 제안하고, 이를 위해서는 반드시 자본주의의 해체가 이루어져야 하며, 이 자본주의의 해체는 원효와 마르크스의 대화를 통해 가능하다고 믿고 그 믿음을 실제로 이루어가려는 노력에 있음을 이야기한다. 『원효와 마르크스의 대화』는 인류에게 닥친 전 지구적 위기를 더는 부정하거나 망각할 경우 희망은 결코 오지 않을 것이라는 문제의식 아래 인류 및 한국 사회의 핵심 위기에 관한 10개의 주제를 ‘전 지구 차원의 환경 위기’ ‘타자에 대한 배제와 폭력과 학살’ ‘인간성의 상실과 외의 심화’ ‘제국의 수탈 및 신자유주의 세계화의 모순’ ‘과학기술의 도구화와 상품화’ ‘근대성의 위기’ ‘분단모순의 심화와 동아시아의 전쟁 위기’ ‘욕망의 과잉’ ‘정보화사회의 모순’ ‘가상성과 재현의 위기’로 규정한다. 그리고 이에 대해 원효의 화쟁 사상과 마르크스를 중심으로 하되, 서양의 여러 사상과 이론을 망라 ‧ 진단 ‧ 분석한 다음 화쟁 사상을 바탕으로 새로운 패러다임을 제시하고 개인의 깨달음과 사회변혁을 변증법적인 동시에 대대적(對待的)으로 종합해 대안을 모색하는 구성을 취하고 있다. 이 책을 통해 독자들은 다시금 우리 사회가 나아가야 할 길이 어디에 있는지, 진보란 무엇인지 성찰할 수 있을 것이고, 아직 끝나지 않은 자본주의에 대한 논쟁을 해결하고 우리 공동의 행복으로 나아가는 삶의 길에 대해 다시금 생각해볼 수 있을 것이다. “모든 문제의 근본 원인은 자본주의 체제에 있다 자본주의의 해체 없이 인간다운 삶과 공동체는 불가능하다” 1장 「전 지구 차원의 환경 위기: 사회생태론 대(對) 불일불이(不一不二)의 연기론」에서는 38퍼센트의 생물이 멸종 위기에 있는 환경위기의 실상을 제시하고 이에 대한 대안인 서양의 생태론과 마르크스의 자연관을 비판적으로 검토한다. 인간과 자연을 둘로 나누고 전자에 우월권을 주는 서양의 폭력적 이분법의 패러다임에서는 홍수를 막기 위해 인간이 자연의 도전에 맞서서 댐을 쌓는 방식의 대안을 제시하며, 이는 물이 흐르면서 스스로 정화하는 것을 막아 오염시킨다. 반면에 불일불이의 패러다임에서는 댐을 헐어버리고 강의 유역을 넓혀 실개천을 조성하고 숲을 만든다. 씨와 열매 각각은 공(空)하지만 씨가 자신을 죽여 열매를 맺고 열매가 자신을 썩혀 씨를 생성하듯, 실제로 함양의 태수였던 최치원이 위천의 홍수를 막기 위해 조성한 함양의 숲, 상림(上林)은 물이 나무의 양분이 되고 나무가 물을 품어주는 방식으로 천여 년 동안 홍수를 막으면서도 물이 맑게 흐르게 했다. 이처럼 불일불이의 패러다임에 따라 모든 생명이 공존하는 화쟁의 생태론을 펼치면서 마르크스를 생태론적으로 재해석하며 인간의 자연화와 자연의 인간화를 종합한 구체적 대안들을 제시한다. 2장 「타자에 대한 배제와 폭력, 학살: 폭력론 · 평화론 대(對) 변동어이(辨同於異)의 눈부처-차이론」에서는 요한 갈퉁의 평화론과 마르크스의 폭력이론을 비판적으로 해석하면서 인간의 폭력과 집단학살의 원인이 한나 아렌트가 주장한 ‘순전한 생각 없음’이나 스탠리 밀그램이 지적한 ‘상황과 권위에 대한 복종’만이 아니라 타자를 배제해 동일성을 강화하려는 데서 비롯함을 밝힌다. 나아가 원효의 변동어이론을 현대적으로 해석, 찰나의 순간에도 나의 호흡으로 대기가 변하고 그 대기가 동시에 나와 타인의 몸으로 들어가서 몸을 변화시키듯, 인간 존재가 서로 영향을 미치고 조건이 되고 인과관계를 맺으면서 서로를 생성하는 상호생성자(inter-becoming)로서 눈부처-주체임을 제시하며 동일성으로 회귀하지 않는 눈부처-차이를 통한 공존의 철학, 타인의 고통에 대한 공감을 바탕으로 한 연대, 구조적 폭력의 제거를 통한 적극적 평화 등의 대안을 펼친다. 3장 「인간성의 상실과 소외의 심화: 소외론 대(對) 진속불이(眞俗不二)의 눈부처-주체론」에서는 마르크스와 프랑크푸르트학파 이론을 바탕으로 자본주의 체제에서 물화와 소외의 원인과 양상을 분석하고 이의 대안이었던 마르크스의 노동이론, 혁명론과 68혁명의 사례를 비판적으로 검토한다. 진화생물학과 인류학, 인지과학을 종합해 인간이 이기와 이타, 선과 악이 공존하고, 자신이 욕망하는 것을 타인에게서 빼앗아 소유하려는 동시에 거울신경체계(mirror neuron system)를 통해 타자의 아픔에 공감하는 모순적 존재임을 밝히고, 진속불이론을 재해석, 타자의 아픔에 공감하고 그를 자유롭게 하는 순간에 진정으로 자유를 완성하는 개인들의 연합에 의한 코뮌을 대안으로 제시한다. 4장 「제국의 수탈 및 신자유주의 세계화의 모순: 세계혁명론 대(對) 화쟁의 사회경제학과 눈부처-공동체론」에서는 1퍼센트가 전체 부의 20퍼센트를 독점하면서 불평등을 심화하고 민주주의마저 해체하는 신자유주의의 모순을 분석하고, 마르크스는 물론 피케티와 스티글리츠 등의 대안들을 비판적으로 검토한다. 거대 이윤의 원천은 시장이 아니라 시장의 작동을 억제하는 독점이기에 공정한 시장이나 윤리적 자본주의란 불가능한 유토피아다. M(자본)-C(상품 생산)-M'(잉여가치 착취를 통해 축적된 자본)에서 M-C축에서는 희망버스와 같은 노동거부로, C-M'축에서는 욕망의 자발적 절제에 의한 소비의 최소화로 자본주의를 해체하는 실천이 필요하지만 여러 요인으로 쉽지 않다. 불교의 노동관과 호혜적 교환에 바탕을 둔 화쟁의 사회경제학을 정립하고, 정과 한의 신명을 바탕으로 한 한국의 두레 공동체를 계승하고 마르크스의 ‘자유로운 개인들의 연합’과 다산 정약용의 여전제를 종합, 타자와 연대하면서 세계의 부조리와 불의에 저항하는 눈부처주체들이 공동생산하고 정의롭게 분배하면서 개인의 이기심도 충족하는 눈부처공동체를 지역 곳곳에 세우고 나아가 세계공화국을 건설한다. 5장 「과학기술의 도구화와 상품화: 과학기술주의 비판 대(對) 일심(一心)의 체용(體用)론」에서는 미신과 주술로부터 인간을 해방시켰던 과학이 현대사회와 자본주의 체제에서 도구화하고 상품화하는 것을 비판함과 아울러 이의 대안이었던 신과학의 사이비성과 신비주의에 대해서도 비판한다. 양자물리학과 진화생물학, 인류학을 바탕으로 우주의 창조와 생명의 진화, 인류의 형성에 신이 관여한 흔적이 없으며 만들어진 허구임을 밝히면서도 존재하지 않지만 어디에나 계신 신의 의미를 따져보고, 과학과 정신을 종합한다. 원전마피아 등 과학이 자본에 종속되는 것을 해체하고 과학의 윤리성과 객관성을 담보하는 방안을 모색하고, 진리가 작용과 운동을 통해 드러나면서 현상을 구성하는 동시에 감추고, 현상이 다시 진리를 품는 작용과 현상과 진리 사이의 관계망을 밝히면서 석굴암처럼 자연의 원리에 따라 엔트로피가 제로에 가까운 새로운 과학의 가능성을 탐색한다. 6장 「근대성의 위기: 포스트모더니즘 비판 대(對) 인언견언(因言遣言)론」에서는 토대와 상부구조의 틀에서 중세성과 근대성, 탈근대성의 개념을 총체적으로 규정하고, 환경위기, 소외의 심화, 이성중심주의 등 근대성의 모순을 비판하면서 데리다 등 포스트모더니즘 사상과 이론의 오류와 한계에 대해서도 신랄하게 비판한다. 소쉬르, 퍼스 등의 기호학과 불교의 언어관을 비교하면서 언어의 공성(空性)에 대해 따져본 다음 마르크스와 원효를 종합해 ‘지금 여기에서’ 진리를 확정하고 이를 향해 실천하는 길, 텍스트와 기표에 맥락과 역사를 부여하고, 이성중심주의를 비판하면서도 소통적인 합리성을 추구하고, 주체의 동일성의 폭력을 넘어서서 세계의 부조리를 인식하고 이를 극복하기 위해 실천하면서도 타자와 상생하는 길을 모색한다. 예술적 차원에서는 현실을 거울처럼 반영하는 반영상과 프리즘처럼 굴절하는 굴절상의 화쟁을 추구한다. 7장 「분단모순의 심화와 동아시아의 전쟁 위기: 변증법적 통일론 대(對) 동아시아 화쟁체제론」에서는 먼저 통일의 장애와 극복책에 대해 따져본다. 남북 대결과 핵위기는 6자회담에서 핵과 평화협정을 맞바꾸어 한반도 평화 체제를 세우는 것으로, 점증하는 민족주의 및 타자에 대한 배제와 폭력 문제는 각국이 동일성에서 화쟁의 공존공영으로 패러다임을 전환하고 이를 제도화하는 것으로, 권력의 비대칭과 미국의 개입 문제는 구조적 폭력을 해소하는 적극적 평화 체제를 수립하는 것으로, 신자유주의 모순의 심화는 동아시아 시민과 서발턴(하위주체)의 연대를 바탕으로 화쟁의 동아시아 평화공동체를 건설하는 것으로 극복한다. 남북한의 통일은 자주, 평화, 정의와 복지, 인권과 생명 중시, 민주주의의 대원칙 아래 7단계의 통일방안을 실천한다. 곧, ① 남북의 통일을 위한 최소 합의를 하고, ② 평화협정을 체결하며, ③ 남한과 북한 사이의 다양한 교류와 협력을 활성화하며, ④ 남북한의 시민을 대표로 하는 ‘화쟁코리아위원회(가칭)’를 구성하고, 북에 자본주의 마을과 정당, 남에 공산주의 마을과 정당을 세워 서로 대대적으로 회통하는 화쟁 코리아를 건설하며, ⑤ 남북의 국가연합을 하고, ⑥ 낮은 단계의 연방제로 전환하고, ⑦ 완전한 통일국가를 이룩한다. 8장 「욕망의 과잉: 욕망이론 대(對) 화쟁의 마음론」에서는 프로이트와 라캉을 바탕으로 인간과 본능, 욕망, 욕동의 관계를 살피고, 마르크스와 들뢰즈를 중심으로 자본주의 체제에서 욕망의 흐름과 탐욕이 증대된 원인과 양상을 살핀다. 정신과 육체, 유심론과 유물론, 더 나아가 불교의 유식학과 마르크시즘, 정신분석학, 인지과학, 진화생물학을 한데 종합하여, 우주기원종자와 생명기원종자, 인류기원종자 등 여러 종자들과 기억인자들이 알라야식에서 마나스식, 전육식을 오고 가며 뇌의 신경세포와 시냅스를 통하여 발현하며 마음을 작동하는 원리를 밝힌다. 성선설과 성악설은 윤리적 당위일 뿐이고 인류학과 생물학을 종합하여 과학적으로 따져보면, 인간은 자신의 유전자를 확대하려는 본능을 지향하는 ‘생존기계(survival machine)’이자 사회를 형성하여 타자와 협력하면서 공존을 모색하는 유전적 키메라(genetic chimera)다. 선과 악이 공존하는 인간에게 선의 종자만 발아하여 선의 꽃밭을 만들고 악의 종자는 발아하지 않게 하는 방법은 8가지-① 노동과 생산의 분배를 정의롭고 공평하게 관장하는 체제 ② 타자에 대한 공감, ③ 의미의 창조, ④ 사회 시스템과 제도, 문화 ⑤ 문화, 타자의 시선 및 행위, ⑥ 수행, ⑦ 공감협력 교육을 비롯한 집단학습, ⑧ 법과 규약-이다. 9장 「정보화사회의 모순: 디지털정치경제학 대(對) 순이불순(順而不順)의 공유경제론」에서는 정보화사회에 대해 정치, 경제, 사회문화영역으로 나누어 정보의 공유와 집단지성을 통한 민주화와 세계화 등 밝은 면과 정보격차, 혼란, 제국주의화, 전체주의화 등 어두운 면을 냉정하게 통찰한다. 마르크스를 바탕으로 정보재의 가치 문제를 분석하고 디지털 지대는 등가교환이지만, 포털의 경우 페이스북이나 트위터처럼 네티즌의 쏠림에 의하여 독점적 성격을 갖기에 부등가교환으로 전환하며, 초기에는 기술혁신에 의하여 초과이윤이 발생한 것이기에 평등교환이지만, 점차 이 부분은 희미해지고 네티즌의 접속에 의해 초과이윤이 발생하기에 불평등교환으로 전환함을 밝힌다. 아울러, 제러미 리프킨의 한계비용제로와 공유 경제의 가능성과 한계를 비판적으로 검토한 후 따르기도 하고 따르지 않기도 하는 순이불순의 원리와 집단지성을 바탕으로 자본주의를 해체하고, 잉여가치의 착취와 노동의 소외가 없는 화쟁의 공유경제를 달성할 수 있는 길을 모색한다. 10장 「가상성과 재현의 위기: 재현의 위기론 대(對) 화엄의 현실론」에서는 복사본이 원본을 대체하고 소설과 영화가 현실을 재현하는 것이 아니라 그 반대로 대중이 영화나 광고를 흉내내어 현실을 구성하고 가상성과 현실이 공존하고 이미지와 기표가 의미를 대체하는 디지털 사회의 재현의 위기론(the crisis of representation)의 타당성과 한계에 대하여 사회문화, 기호학, 철학, 예술의 영역으로 나누어 분석한다. 이에 대하여 마르크스의 입장에서 기호와 텍스트에 물질성과 맥락을 부여하고 권력의 해석지배에 저항하는 길을 제시한다. 더 나아가 화엄사상을 매개로 현실과 환상, 역사와 현실, 영화와 현실 사이의 화쟁을 이루는 다양한 방안을 강구하는 한편, 가상과 현실이 공존하는 매트릭스적 실존 속에서 상상계, 상징계, 현실, 이데올로기 및 각종 환상 사이의 관계를 분석하면서 거짓과 허상을 밝혀내고 주체적인 현실을 구성할 수 있는 길을 모색한다. 저자 이도흠은 이렇게 총 10장에 걸쳐서 마르크스와 원효를 중심으로 서양의 사상과 이론을 불교와 결합해 인류사회의 위기를 분석하고 「맺음말」에서 대안의 길을 종합한다. 이 작업을 통해 저자가 내린 결론은 크게 세 가지다. 모든 문제의 근본 원인은 자본주의 체제에 있고 자본주의의 해체 없이 인간다운 삶과 공동체는 불가능하다. 자본주의는 앞으로 50년 안에 이윤율의 저하, 재생에너지, 집단 지성과 공유경제, 지역 공동체와 협동조합 등 새로운 흐름과 대중의 운동에 의해 붕괴되고 새로운 세계가 들어설 것이다. 이는 억압에서 벗어나려는 소극적 자유(from freedom), 거듭남과 깨달음, 진정한 자기실현을 이루는 적극적 자유(to freedom), 타자와 연대하여 그를 행복하게 하는 적극적 자유(for freedom)를 종합한 눈부처주체에 의한 화쟁의 세계 체제다. ★ 이 책의 특징과 장점 1. 새로운 패러다임과 구체적인 대안 제시 원효의 화쟁 사상을 바탕으로 서양의 포스트모던 철학을 넘어서서 새로운 패러다임을 제시하면서도 마르크스와 서양의 이론을 적용, 구체적인 대안을 제시한다. 2. 이질적인 마르크스와 불교의 종합 마르크스와 원효의 원전을 꼼꼼하게 해석해 인류와 한국 사회의 위기를 분석하고 종합한다. 저자는 개인의 변화와 세계의 변혁이 함께 이루어져야 한다고 보고, 초역사적이고 관념적인 불교에는 마르크스와 서양이론을 통해 과학적이고 합리적인 분석틀과 방법론, 역사성과 사회성을 결합한다. 그리고 마르크시즘에는 불교의 이분법과 실체론을 넘어선 중도와 연기의 패러다임을 입히고 일심을 지향하도록 한다. 3. 여러 학문의 융복합은 물론 최근의 세계 학계의 성과를 회통함 동양과 서양, 문학과 철학, 역사만이 아니라 진화생물학, 인류학, 인지과학, 양자물리학, 사회학 분야의 2014~2015년의 세계 학계의 최근의 성과를 수용해 하나로 회통하고 있다. 4. 구체적이고 실증적인 자료를 통한 분석 진보진영의 논의가 대개 당위적이고 선언적인데, 국내외 연구소, 국제기구의 보고서와 국내외 신문에 실린 최근의 구체적인 통계와 수치, 자료를 최대한 수집해 이를 바탕으로 실증적이고 객관적인 분석을 한 후에 진단하고 평가하면서 대안을 제시한다. 5. 난해한 사상을 쉽게 에세이 형식으로 기술하면서도 웅숭깊게 함 원효와 마르크스는 물론, 들뢰즈, 데리다, 라캉 등 난해한 사상과 이론을 장황하지 않은 범위에서 최대한 쉽게 풀어서 설명하며 자신의 생각을 담아 종합하고 있다. 6. 현장과 책상머리의 종합 인문학이 ‘지금, 여기에서’ 사회적 약자들의 고통을 공감하는 데서 출발해야 한다는 저자는 투쟁 현장과 책상을 오고 가며 직접 몸으로 겪은 현실과 이를 깊이 있게 분석하는 이론을 끊임없이 변증법적으로 종합했기에 현장성이 있으면서도 일반화하며 보편적 설득력을 담고 있다. (shrink)

An introduction to the philosophy of ʻAzīz al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Nasafī, 13th cent. and Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm Ṣadr al-Dīn Shīrāzī, d. 1641 about mysticism and politics in Iran.

Professor Davidson's anomalous monism has been subject to the criticism that, despite advertisements to the contrary, if it were true mental properties would be epiphenomenal. To this Davidson has replied that his critics have misunderstood his views concerning the extensional nature of causal relations and the intensional character of causal explanations. I call this his ‘extension reply’. This paper argues that there are two ways to read Davidson's ‘extension reply’; one weaker and one stronger. But the dilemma is that: the (...) weak extension reply on its own isn't sufficient to support the principle of the nomological character of causality, anything strong enough to support that principle under the weak extension reply would be strong enough to warrant the strong extension reply; but the strong extension reply threatens the very stability of anomalous monism by threatening the causal potency and reality of the mental. For these reasons, I claim that either version of the ‘extension reply’ is bad news for anomalous monism. I conclude by suggesting that a form of absolute idealism circumvents the very assumptions that generate these kinds of difficulty for committed monists. (shrink)

The relationship between philosophy and science in contemporary times is closer than ever. From the methodology perspective, scientific and philosophical research has a clear sequential relationship. It is highlighted in the following aspects: 1. the methodology of scientific research, including theoretical assumptions and data modeling, parallels with apparent similarities in conceptual analysis and logical deduction in philosophy;2. consistency of analytical argumentation methods in scientific research and philosophical research;3. naturalism is currently a research approach that both scientific and philosophical research adopt. (...) There has been a significant dispute over the relationship between philosophy and science among contemporary philosophers. This dispute focuses on the impact of scientific development on philosophy research. Nowadays, no one would deny the existence of this impact, but there is no consensus on the impact's nature, scope, and role. Wittgenstein's conception of certainty can provide valuable insights to understand the relationship between philosophy and science. In addition, we conclude the pragmatic turn in cognitive science because we misinterpret the cognitive scientists' emphasis on action as a practical claim and interpret the cognitive scientists' views with pragmatism. The theoretical analysis and research suggestions philosophers provide are becoming essential focuses in contemporary artificial intelligence research, including the interpretability of computer technology, the ethical norms of artificial intelligence technology, and the possible conception of human beings in the future. The interdisciplinary study of science and philosophy will achieve more significant development. In sum, understanding the nature of philosophy can be given a new explanation from a future perspective. The future outlook here refers to the starting point from possible world scenarios that can be conceived and traced back to all the facts happening in the present world, thereby giving an appropriate explanation to the real world. (shrink)

ObjectiveSelf-esteem and self-acceptance are not only basic features but also influential factors of mental health. The present study aimed at assessing the effects of psychoeducational lecture and group intervention on self-esteem and self-acceptance in Chinese college students.MethodsA total of 149 Chinese college students who participated in a mental health course were randomly class-based assigned into the psychoeducational lecture group and the self-focused intervention group. The lecture group received 6-session psychoeducational lectures on overview of mental health, campus adaptation, stress adjustment, self-understanding, (...) emotion management, and interpersonal relationships. The self-focused intervention group was treated with self-related group activities involving aspects of self-knowledge, self-feeling, and self-regulation for six sessions. Pre- and post-intervention measurements were taken with Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Self-Acceptance Questionnaire for both groups.ResultsSelf-esteem significantly increased in both groups after six sessions. However, the enhancement of self-acceptance was more robust for the self-focused intervention group than the psychoeducational lecture group.ConclusionThe psychoeducational lecture and self-focused intervention were effective approaches to improve self-esteem for Chinese college students. With respect to self-acceptance, self-focused group intervention might have a more prominent effect. (shrink)

Plausible principles on truth seem to yield contradictory conclusions about paradoxical sentences such as the Strengthened Liar. Those who take the contextualist approach, such as Parsons and Burge, attempt to justify the seemingly contradictory conclusions by arguing that the natural reasoning that leads to them involves some kind of contextual shift that makes them compatible. This paper argues that one cannot take this approach to give a proper treatment of infinite descending chains of semantic attributions. It also examines a related (...) approach taken by Gaifman and argues that it has the same problem. (shrink)

The sport industry is an extremely diverse industry, including segments such as professional sport, intercollegiate athletics, health and fitness, recreational sport and facility management. The industry is currently experiencing rapid growth and development, and as it grows, sport managers in the different segments encounter ethical issues which are often unique to each segment. This article examines the professional sport, intercollegiate athletics, health and fitness, recreational sport and facility management segments of the sport industry and discusses the various ethical issues facing (...) managers in each of these segments. (shrink)

The relationship between philosophy and science in contemporary times is closer than ever. From the methodology perspective, scientific and philosophical research has a clear sequential relationship. It is highlighted in the following aspects: 1. the methodology of scientific research, including theoretical assumptions and data modeling, parallels with apparent similarities in conceptual analysis and logical deduction in philosophy;2. consistency of analytical argumentation methods in scientific research and philosophical research;3. naturalism is currently a research approach that both scientific and philosophical research adopt. (...) There has been a significant dispute over the relationship between philosophy and science among contemporary philosophers. This dispute focuses on the impact of scientific development on philosophy research. Nowadays, no one would deny the existence of this impact, but there is no consensus on the impact's nature, scope, and role. Wittgenstein's conception of certainty can provide valuable insights to understand the relationship between philosophy and science. In addition, we conclude the pragmatic turn in cognitive science because we misinterpret the cognitive scientists' emphasis on action as a practical claim and interpret the cognitive scientists' views with pragmatism. The theoretical analysis and research suggestions philosophers provide are becoming essential focuses in contemporary artificial intelligence research, including the interpretability of computer technology, the ethical norms of artificial intelligence technology, and the possible conception of human beings in the future. The interdisciplinary study of science and philosophy will achieve more significant development. In sum, understanding the nature of philosophy can be given a new explanation from a future perspective. The future outlook here refers to the starting point from possible world scenarios that can be conceived and traced back to all the facts happening in the present world, thereby giving an appropriate explanation to the real world. (shrink)

Importance: Given the importance of apathy for stroke, we felt it was time to scrutinize the psychometric properties of the commonly used Starkstein Apathy Scale for this purpose.Objectives: The objectives were to: estimate the extent to which the SAS items fit a hierarchical continuum of the Rasch Model; and estimate the strength of the relationships between the Rasch analyzed SAS and converging constructs related to stroke outcomes.Methods: Data was from a clinical trial of a community-based intervention targeting participation. A total (...) of 857 SAS questionnaires were completed by 238 people with stroke from up to 5 time points. SAS has 14 items, rated on a 4-point scale with higher values indicating more apathy. Psychometric properties were tested using Rasch partial-credit model, correlation, and regression. Items were rescored so higher scores are interpreted as lower apathy levels.Results: Rasch analysis indicated that the response options were disordered for 8/14 items, pointing to unreliability in the interpretation of the response options; they were consequently reduced from 4 to 3. Only 9/14 items fit the Rasch model and therefore suitable for creating a total score. The new rSAS was deemed unidimensional. Apathy was correlated weakly with anxiety/depression and uncorrelated with physical capacity. Regression showed that the effect of apathy on participation and health perception was similar for rSAS/SAS versions: R2 participation measures ranged from 0.11 to 0.29; R2 for health perception was ∼0.25. When placed on the same scale, rSAS value was 6.5 units lower than SAS value with minimal floor/ceiling effects. Estimated change over time was identical which was not substantial but greater than expected assuming no change.Conclusion: The retained items of the rSAS targeted domains of behaviors more than beliefs and results support the rSAS as a robust measure of apathy in people with chronic stroke. (shrink)

I. Wŏnhyo esŏ An Chung-gŭn kkaji -- II. Yu Yŏng-mo esŏ Kim Tae-jung kkaji.

Humans must take moral and criminal responsibility for making a free choice between good and evil, according to Chŏng Yakyong, and this view was influenced by Matteo Ricci. Choosing to commit an evil action means committing a willful crime, so one must take responsibility for this action in the form of punishment. However, unintentional wrongdoings can be forgiven. For example, a man stealing to survive or killing a robber in order to live should not be punished, because these individuals have (...) no choice but to do so. Those claims of Chŏng are his own creation, not influenced by Ricci or Confucianism. By contrast, the idea that a child’s intentional hiding of his father’s crime should not be punished because of the child’s duty of filial piety was influenced by Confucianism. However, a large crime committed by a child on the basis of filial piety, such as committing murder to rescue one’s mother, only lends cause for commutation. Unlike Chŏng, Ricci regarded a child’s act of stealing bread to feed his family as an action of evil rather than an act of filial piety, since theft is an evil action. (shrink)

Journal Name: Cognitive Linguistics Issue: Ahead of print.

Here I respond to Anthony Brueckner and John Martin Fischer’s “The Evil of Death: A Reply to Yi.” They developed an influential strategy in defense of the deprivation account of death’s badness against the Lucretian symmetry problem. The core of their argument consists in the claim that it is rational for us to welcome future intrinsic goods while being indifferent to past intrinsic goods. Previously, I argued that their approach is compatible with the evil of late birth insofar as an (...) earlier birth would have generated more goods in the future. In reply, Brueckner and Fischer argue that my critique fails to appreciate an important aspect of their thought experiment, which aims only to show that the deprivation of past goods per se is not bad for us. Thus, purportedly, my critique poses no threat to their view. Here I argue that since the deprivation account explains the evil of death with recourse to how one’s life would have fared had one lived longer, it ought to respond to the symmetry problem with reference to how one’s life would have fared had one been born earlier. However, it is not generally true that the life one would have had with an earlier birth is not preferable to one’s actual life, because in many cases such a life would contain more future goods. (shrink)

Geography and religion -- Landscape of anxiety and fear -- Chinese cosmic space and places -- European sacred space and places -- A comparison with American Indian world-view -- Similar, yet different -- Apartness -- Order -- Wholeness and completion -- Sacred state -- Violence -- Ironies of piety -- God and morality -- From amoral energy to power for good -- Rise and fall of place specificity -- Traders and pilgrims -- Religious geography; or just human geography -- The (...) aesthetic sublime : vastness, place, and space -- Space vs. local place and custom -- Unbounded vastness and placelessness -- The aesthetic sublime : transiency and the eternal -- The ethical sublime : Buddhism -- The ethical sublime : Christianity -- Falling standard -- Geography and religion : fundamental questions -- From architectural and ritual to storytelling -- Community, self, and selflessness -- Placelessness and ethereality -- Religion of fear and privilege -- True religion -- Progress -- The ultimate test. (shrink)

The problem of God's subordination to laws of logic and mathematics in jewish philosophy and theology.

Combining games with mobile commerce applications has been a trend in recent years. Mobile commerce is attracting a large number of people, especially females, to play mini games on the platform. The gamification of mobile commerce may affect users’ platform satisfaction. This study aims to explore the intention of female users to play mobile commerce games and its impact on platform satisfaction. We collected data from females in China who played mobile commerce games and then used a structural equation model (...) to test the various hypotheses we made. The results showed that game use intention fully mediated the impact of performance expectation, hedonic motivation, and social influence on platform satisfaction. Effort expectation had no significant impact on game use intention but had a positive impact on platform satisfaction. Game use intention had a positive impact on platform satisfaction. The frequency of playing games and the amount of money spent on the platform were positively correlated with game use intention. Females over 25 years old preferred to play mobile commerce games. This study provides a theoretical reference and practical enlightenment and makes a specific contribution to the development of mobile commerce platform and the application of gamification. However, this study has limitations in terms of test samples, research methods and research content, and further research on mobile commerce is required in the future. (shrink)

Contemporary accounts of logic and language cannot give proper treatments of plural constructions of natural languages. They assume that plural constructions are redundant devices used to abbreviate singular constructions. This paper and its sequel, "The logic and meaning of plurals, II", aim to develop an account of logic and language that acknowledges limitations of singular constructions and recognizes plural constructions as their peers. To do so, the papers present natural accounts of the logic and meaning of plural constructions that result (...) from the view that plural constructions are, by and large, devices for talking about many things (as such). The account of logic presented in the papers surpasses contemporary Fregean accounts in its scope. This extension of the scope of logic results from extending the range of languages that logic can directly relate to. Underlying the view of language that makes room for this is a perspective on reality that locates in the world what plural constructions can relate to. The papers suggest that reflections on plural constructions point to a broader framework for understanding logic, language, and reality that can replace the contemporary Fregean framework as this has replaced its Aristotelian ancestor. (shrink)

We investigated how age of faces and emotion expressed in faces affect young (n=30) and older (n=20) adults’ visual inspection while viewing faces and judging their expressions. Overall, expression identification was better for young than older faces, suggesting that interpreting expressions in young faces is easier than in older faces, even for older participants. Moreover, there were age-group differences in misattributions of expressions, in that young participants were more likely to label disgusted faces as angry, whereas older adults were more (...) likely to label angry faces as disgusted. In addition to effects of emotion expressed in faces, age of faces affected visual inspection of faces: Both young and older participants spent more time looking at own-age than other-age faces, with longer looking at own-age faces predicting better own-age expression identification. Thus, cues used in expression identification may shift as a function of emotion and age of faces, in interaction with age of participants. (shrink)

In this paper, I criticize John Bigelow's account of number and present my own account that results from the criticism. In doing so, I argue that proper understanding of the nature of number requires a radical departure from the standard conception of language and reality and outline the alternative conception that underlies my account of number. I argue that Bigelow's account of number rests on an incorrect analysis of the plural constructions underlying the talk of number and propound an analysis (...) of numerical sentences, such as "Quine and Goodman are two", that conforms to the natural understanding of the plural constructions. The analysis leads to the account of number according to which natural numbers are properties, i.e., one-place relations: the number two, for example, is the property indicated by "to be two", which, I argue, is a one-place predicate that can combine with plural terms like "Quine and Goodman". (shrink)

Conventional wisdom suggests that aesthetic experiences - those moments when the senses come to life - are important only after more basic needs have been met. In this inspiring wealth of provocative ideas, Yi-Fu Tuan demonstrates that feeling and beauty are essential parts of life and society. The aesthetic is shown to be not merely one aspect of culture but its central core - both its driving force and its ultimate goal. Beginning with the individual and the physical world, the (...) author's exploration progresses from the simple to the complex. Tuan starts by examining the building blocks of aesthetic experience - sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste - and gradually expands his analysis to include the most elaborate of human constructs, including art, architecture, literature, philosophy, music, and landscape. This leads him to the realm of politics, where he grapples with the fundamental question of the relationship between goodness and beauty, and of how the aesthetic can become a moral force within society. To guide the reader along this journey, the author describes how the aesthetic operates in four widely disparate cultures: Australian aboriginal, Chinese, medieval European, and modern American. Yi-Fu Tuan, one of our most influential and original thinkers, brilliantly conveys the profound fascination of multisensory reality, and in so doing enables us to make connections among even the most diffuse elements of our lives. While Tuan does not ignore human folly, Passing Strange and Wonderful is a celebration of the world around us, our experiences, and our creations. (shrink)

The paper studies the nature of understanding in condensed matter physics (CMP), mediated by the successful employment of its models. I first consider two obvious candidates for the criteria of model-based understanding, Van Fraassen's sense of empirical adequacy and Hacking's instrumental utility , and conclude that both are unsatisfactory. Inspired by Hasok Chang's recent proposal to reformulate realism as the pursuit of ontological plausibility in our system of knowledge, we may require the model under consideration to be understood (or intelligible) (...) before claiming model-based understanding. Here the understanding of a model typically consists of the following: figuring out at least one plausible (preferably realistic) physical mechanism for the model, determining the theoretical consequences of the model by mathematically probing it and developing our physical intuitions about the model. I consider the q-state Potts model to illustrate. After having understood a model, we may employ the model to understand its target phenomena in the world. This is done by matching one of the interpretative models of the model with the central features of the phenomena. The matching should be motivated (ideally both theoretically and empirically) in the sense that we have good reason to believe that the central features of the phenomena can be thought of as having more or less the same structure as postulated by the interpretative model. In conclusion, I propose a two-stage account of model-based understanding in CMP: (1) understanding of a model and (2) matching a target phenomenon with a well-motivated interpretative model of the model. Empirical success and instrumental utility both play their roles in the evaluation of how successful the model is, but are not the essential part of model-based understanding. (shrink)

This study proposes a research model based on social identity theory, which examines the moderating role of organizational trust on the relationship between corporate citizenship and organizational commitment. In the model, organizational commitment is positively influenced by organizational trust and four dimensions of perceived corporate citizenship, including economic, legal, ethical and discretionary citizenship. The model paths are hypothesized to be moderated by organizational trust. Empirical testing using a survey of personnel from 12 large firms confirms most of our hypothesized effects. (...) Theoretical and managerial implications of our findings are discussed. (shrink)

C. S. Peirce has been considered in China as the pioneer of American pragmatism, not only within academic circles, but also in the public’s perception. Nonetheless, some Chinese scholars still confuse his theory with that of the other two principal figures in classical pragmatism. However, there are a few Chinese scholars who clearly realize the difference between Peirce’s pragmaticism and other forms of pragmatism. As a result, an increasing number of Chinese books and contributions focus on Peirce’s philosophy. The Selected (...) Writings of C. S. Peirce, edited by Jiliang Tu, were published in 2006, and the translation of The Essential Peirce in two volumes is in process. The translation of The Collected Papers of C. S. Peirce in 8 volumes has been planned under the leadership of Yi Jiang. Chinese Peirce scholars are mainly concerned with the following topics: (1) the historical relation of Peirce to the pragmatist movement in the 19th century; (2) the contribution of Peirce’s logic to the philosophy of logic; (3) Peirce as a pioneer of philosophy of science in the 20th century; (4) the comparative study of Peirce’s semiotics and Saussure’s linguistics; and (5) Peirce’s unique place in the history of Western philosophy. There are a number of views about Peirce, but most Chinese scholars agree that his philosophy had a significant influence on 20th century philosophy in the West as well as in the rest of the world. (shrink)

This study adopts a stakeholder theory framework to examine determinants of social reporting quality and empirically test the ability of the theory to explain disclosure quality in an emerging economy. Using a sample of 246 listed companies and a hand-collected dataset that included 2 years of data based on survey questions reflecting international disclosure trends, we apply an aggregate measure of quality with five facets to a variety of corporate social responsibility areas. The results support the application and demonstrate that (...) measures of stakeholder power, strategic posture, economic resources, firm size, and media visibility are related to social disclosure quality. This paper adds to the scarce evidence on social reporting in Taiwan and provides a useful method for evaluating disclosure quality. It also illustrates the impact of two dominant foreign stakeholder groups on social disclosures in Taiwan: organizational buyers in the global supply chain and listing and social rating agencies in international capital markets. (shrink)

As more and more scholars deepened the study of the Dunhuang version of The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, many significant research questions were raised. The questions such as when the book was completed, who actually wrote the book, and the historical authenticity of Huineng’s story, especially his identity of the Sixth Patriarch, were extensively discussed and questioned by many scholars. This essay attempts to conduct a more profound analysis and thinking based on the current academic studies with respect (...) to this historical book, and seeks to critically and profoundly rethink the methods of contemporary criticism concerning religious studies. (shrink)

Communication, as a discipline that generates a rich body of literature on CSR, has become a critical contributor to CSR knowledge in social science. However, limited research exists to understand how CSR knowledge is constructed and diffused in the discipline. This study thus intends to unpack the knowledge construction process of CSR research in the communication discipline from a network perspective. Invisible college was adopted as the conceptual framework. Article and theory/concept networks were constructed with 290 peer-reviewed articles from 61 (...) communication journals between 1980 and 2018. Results showed that in the past four decades, CSR literature in communication has been growing and maturing, as evidenced by the increasing volume and diversity of theories and concepts applied. Furthermore, this body of literature tends to gravitate toward certain selected groups of theories and concepts, resulting in denser article networks over time. Our findings reflected a substantial influence of management and psychological perspectives on CSR research in communication. Additionally, the results showed that public relations concepts and theories have influenced CSR research across different communication subfields such as advertising and organization communication. The study expects the continuation of the plurality of voices as to how communication researchers will approach CSR and what specific topics may gain popularity in future research. (shrink)

Moral ‘saints and heroes’ are generally considered to be admirable, moral exemplars worthy of emulation. J. O. Urmson characterizes them as morally laudable agents who perform supererogatory actions. This characterization, combined with relevant empirical evidence, presents a paradox in which supererogatory acts appear to become, not optional, but obligatory for moral saints and heroes. This is termed the ‘agent–observer disparity’. Drawing on Bernard Williams’ ideas, the concepts of practical necessity and moral incapacity, which are expressive of and grounded in one’s (...) character, are utilized to account for moral saints and heroes’ subjective morality and illuminate their exceptional strength of character. In response to misgivings regarding the imitability of moral saints and heroes and the attainability of their excellences of character, this study suggests that the considerable gap between the characteristics of extreme exemplars and ordinary individuals can provide ordinary individuals with the freedom to consider the moral perspectives of these exemplars that evoke wonder without the exemplars’ actions becoming a threat to ordinary people’s self-concept. The earnest aspiration to reach the moral ideals of moral saints and heroes can move ordinary individuals and trigger an aretaic impulse to act more virtuously without causing stress. It is concluded that moral saints and heroes as extreme exemplars complement the influence of ordinary ‘close-by’ moral mentors and both are key in exemplar-based character education. (shrink)

Using a nationwide survey of randomly selected manufacturing firms in representative Chinese cities, we examine how firms’ compliance with social insurance policies is shaped by their historical imprinting, by their founding ownership structures, as well as by massive institutional changes. Our empirical results suggest that firms founded in the state socialist era and firms founded as Chinese state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were infused with socialist institutional logics of labor relations, and they tended to comply with social insurance policies even in the (...) present market socialist era. Chinese SOEs restructured into private and joint-ventured firms attenuated the lingering effect of organizational imprinting and provide social insurances for fewer workers. This research is among the first to probe the historical influence on labor protection in contemporary society. Through studying the stability and changes of socialist institutional logic of labor relations, our research leads to a better understanding of the situation of labor relations in contemporary China. (shrink)

Xunzi's philosophy provides a rich resource for understanding how ethical relationships between humans and nature can be articulated in terms of harmony. In this paper, I build on his ideas to develop the concept of reciprocal harmony, which requires us to reciprocate those who make our lives liveable. In the context of the environment, I argue that reciprocal harmony generates moral obligations towards nature, in return for the existential debt that humanity owes towards heaven and earth. This can be used (...) as a normative basis for an environmental ethic that enables humanity and nature to flourish together. (shrink)

BackgroundInformed consent forms are intended to facilitate research enrollment decisions. However, the technical language in institutional templates can be unfamiliar and confusing for decision-makers. Standardized language describing financial implications of participation, namely compensation for injury and costs of care associated with participating, can be complex and could be a deterrent for potential participants. This standardized language may also be misleading in the context of comparative effectiveness trials of standard care interventions, in which costs and risk of injury associated with participating (...) may not differ from regular medical care. In addition, the revised U.S. Common Rule contains a new requirement to present key information upfront; the impact of how this requirement is operationalized on comprehension and likelihood of enrollment for a given study is unknown.MethodsTwo online surveys assessed the impact of (1) changes to compensation for injury language (standard vs. tailored language form) and (2) changes to the key information page (using the tailored compensation language form with standard key information vs. modified key information vs. modified key information plus financial information) on both likelihood of enrollment in and understanding of a hypothetical comparative effectiveness trial.ResultsLikelihood of enrolling was not observed to be different between the standard and tailored language forms in Study 1 (73 vs. 75%; p = 0.6); however, the tailored language group had a higher frequency of understanding the compensation for injury process specific to the trial (25 vs. 51%; p < 0.0001). Modifications to the key information sheet in Study 2 did not affect likelihood of enrolling (88 vs. 85 vs. 85%; p = 0.6); however, understanding of randomization differed by form (44 vs. 59 vs. 46%; p = 0.002).ConclusionsThese findings suggest that refining consent forms to clarify key information and tailoring compensation for injury language to the nature of the study, especially in the context of comparative effectiveness trials, may help to improve study comprehension but may not impact enrollment. (shrink)

This article shows that in two respects, Gödel's incompleteness theorem strongly supports the arguments of Edgar Morin's complexity paradigm. First, from the viewpoint of the content of Gödel's theorem, the latter justifies the basic view of complexity paradigm according to which knowledge is a dynamic, unfinished process, and develops by way of self-criticism and self-transcendence. Second, from the viewpoint of the proof procedure of Gödel's theorem, the latter confirms the complexity paradigm's circular line of inference through which is formed the (...) all-round knowledge of a concrete object. (shrink)

Whether or not a public relations code of ethics should be enforced, among others, has become one of the most widely controversial topics, especially after the Hill and Knowlton case in 1992. I take the position that ethical codes should be enforced and address this issue from eight aspects: (a) Is a code of ethics an absolute prerequisite of professionalism? (b) Should problems of rhetoric per se in a code of ethics become a rationale against code enforcement? (c) Is a (...) code of ethics of any significance? (d) Is the ethical code is enforceable, (e) Would the licensure system interfere with the freedom of expression of the practitioners? (f) Do PR practitioners choose to be ethical (if they do) because they have to be or because they want to be? (g) Would the public interest be virtually assured as a result of a public relations? and (h) Can education in ethics overcome the ethical problems in public relations? (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:An Exegetic Study of the So-Called Proposition of Confucian AestheticsWang Yi (bio) and Xiaowei FuSince Wang Guowei and Cai Yuanpei introduced the concepts of aesthetics and aesthetic education, respectively, to China in the early twentieth century, there has been a strong tendency in many of the aesthetic discussions to examine ancient texts and materials using modern concepts of aesthetics. In particular, sentences with the character-word mei1 are often sought (...) in classical works and interpreted as speeches on or about beauty, which has led to frequent misunderstandings of the classical texts and of the ancient Confucian aesthetic theory.The most typical among these misunderstandings, we think, is the misinterpretation of one of Mencius's remarks on the goodness of human nature-"To possess these qualities of goodness fully is beautiful" (Chongshi zhiwei mei)2-as a representative statement of the Confucian aesthetic theory of "the union of the beautiful and good." Although it is not clear who was the first to put this interpretation forward, it is now widely accepted and almost unquestioned that the statement "Chongshi zhiwei mei" is the classical proposition of the Confucian aesthetic theory after countless repetitions by aestheticians and educationalists. And extended from this is the claim that "the union of the beautiful and good," or the union of the moral and beauty, is the traditional theory of Confucian aesthetic education.3 Finding it coincidentally in accordance with the idea of "the union of the beautiful and good" in both the Soviet and Greek philosophies, aesthetic educators are apt to admit that aesthetic education is included in moral education or aesthetic education is but one of the means of moral education; thus, aesthetic education cannot be an independent subject. [End Page 80]It is rather surprising that in spite of the wide interest in quoting this sentence, very little in the textual research and criticism has offered convincing proof that it is really Mencius's opinion about beauty or aesthetic theory and therefore-since he is the most influential Confucian educator and philosopher after Confucius-representative of the aesthetic theory of Confucianism.Actually, the proper analysis of the meaning of the word mei in this statement by Mencius has long been a controversial issue in Chinese history. There have been two main approaches: mei as an equivalent of shan (good/ goodness) and mei as a synonym with its modern Chinese counterpart. The former is taken by Zhao Qi,4 according to whom mei in this statement is a term used to explain a level of shan. This analysis is further developed by Sun Shi,5 who argues that mei is the third level of the six shan. Likewise, Yang Bojun,6 among other modern scholars, also considers mei an equivalent of shan. The latter approach, on the other hand, is pursued by Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi, Jiao Xun,7 and many modern aestheticians, who all interpret mei as "beauty" or "beautiful" in the aesthetic sense.The main interest of the present analysis is an attempt to decode the genuine meaning of the statement. With references to ancient dictionaries like Origin of Chinese Characters8 and exegetic works (from 206 bc to the modern times) of Mencius, this article attempts to contextualize mei in the original text and historical context in order to interpret the meaning of the sentence and the real intention of Mencius. In this way we hope to determine whether it can be regarded as the proposition of Mencius or the Confucian aesthetic theory of "the union of the beautiful and good."IIn the first part of this article we shall offer a contextual study of the sentence with reference to two of the ancient interpretations of the theme of the passage and the meaning of the character mei. By investigating the context of the sentence "Chongshi zhiwei mei" we argue that the theme of the passage is a discussion of the six levels of shan (goodness).The context of the sentence comes from a passage in Mencius (Jinxin part 2), which begins with Mencius talking with Haosheng Buhai about one of his disciples, Yue Zhengzi, who was reported to embark in a political career in the State... (shrink)