The Plight of Humanity in Paul In Paul and Palestinian Judaism, E. P. Sanders argues that, for Paul, humanity’s plight was not the condition that necessitated the solution of Jesus Christ. Instead, the solution was presented to Paul first on the Damascus road, and humanity’s plight was simply the logical corollary to the solution. This study will critically examine the particulars of Sanders’s argument— particularly with regard to Romans 7, Philippians 3, and Galatians 3—and offer some alternative exegetical analyses. This (...) essay will argue that, while the development of Paul’s thinking may indeed have run from solution to plight, the exposition of Paul’s thinking goes from plight to solution. The movement of Paul’s exposition may suggest that his conception of the plight of humanity was born out of his ideational milieu, which must have been fed, at least, by the Old Testament and evidenced, at least, by literature such as 4 Ezra. (shrink)

Despite growing interest in automated (or algorithmic) decision-making (ADM), little work has been done to conceptually clarify the term. This article aims to tackle this issue by developing a conceptualization of ADM specifically tailored to organizational contexts. It has two main goals: (1) to meaningfully demarcate ADM from similar, yet distinct algorithm-supported practices; and (2) to draw internal distinctions such that different ADM types can be meaningfully distinguished. The proposed conceptualization builds on three arguments: First, ADM primarily refers to the (...) automation of practical decisions (decisions to _φ_) as opposed to cognitive decisions (decisions that _p_). Second, rather than referring to algorithms as literally making decisions, ADM refers to the use of algorithms to solve decision problems at an organizational level. Third, since algorithmic tools by nature primarily settle cognitive decision problems, their classification as ADM depends on whether and to what extent an algorithmically generated output _p_ has an action triggering effect—i.e., translates into a consequential action _φ_. The examination of precisely this _p_-_φ_ relationship, allows us to pinpoint different ADM types (suggesting, offloading, superseding). Taking these three arguments into account, we arrive at the following definition: ADM refers to the practice of using algorithms to solve decision problems, where these algorithms can play a suggesting, offloading, or superseding role relative to humans, and decisions are defined as action triggering choices. (shrink)

SummaryThis essay explores analogies between classical notions of pyrrhonist skepticism and reflexive phenomena of twentieth‐century metamathematics. In a theoretical framework T, for example, one may interpret1T's appearances () as its axioms;2evident and inevident assertions () in the language L of T as sentences 0 which are decidable and undecidable in T; and3skeptical self ‐doubt about T in L as T's Godel‐sentence γ .These analogies complement another one, between pyrrhonist ‘modes’() of indefinite semantic regress (), and recurrent appeals to ‘new’ metatheories (...) T', T., to consider ‘new’, identify alternate interpretations, and adjudicate claims of consistency.These analogies are also reflexive in a wider sense. ‐ are stated for theories T, T', T., in some unspecified metatheory t̄–to which they also apply. This wider reflexivity suggests that ‘problems' of skeptical self‐doubt are not vicious or otiose, but significant aspects of the phenomena of indefinite semantic regress.RésuméCet essai explore quelques analogies entre les notions classiques du scepticisme pyrrhonien et les phénomenes réflexifs de la métamathématique du vingtième siècle. Dans un cadre théorique T du premier ordre, par exemple, on peut interpréter les apparences de T (), comme des axiomes; les assertions évidentes et non évidentes (), dans la langue L de T, comme les énoncés ø decidables et indecidables dans L; et le doute sceptique de ‘soi au sujet de T dans L, come ľénoncé ‐γ de Gödel de T .Ces analogies en complèment une autre, entre les ‘modes' pyrrhoniens() dela régression sémantique indéfinie(), et les appels récurrents à de ‘nouvelles' métathéories T', T., pour considérer de ‘nou‐veaux’, identifier des interpretations alternatives et juger des questions de consistance.Ces analogies sont aussi réflexives dans un sense plus large. ‐ se constatent pour les théories T, T T., dans une métathéorie indéterminée T –aG laquelle ilss'appliquent à nouveau. Cette réflexivité plus étendue suggère que les problèmes de doute sceptique de soi‘ ne sont pas vicieux ou vides, mais représentent au contraire des aspects signifiants des phénomènes de régression sémantique indéfinie.ZusammenfassungIn der vorliegenden Arbeit werden einige Analogien zwischen klassischen Begriffen des pyrrhonischen Skeptizismus und reflexiven Phänomenen der Metamathematik des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts untersucht. In einem theoretischen Rahmenwerk T kann man die folgenden Interpretationen geben:1die Erscheinungen () von T als dessen Axiome;2evidente und nicht‐evidente Aussagen () in der Sprache L von T als Sätze ø, die entscheidbar, bzw. unentscheidbar sind; und3den skeptischen Selbst zweifel über T in L als den Güdel‐Satz γ für T .Diese Analogien sind complementär zu einer anderen, nämlich derjenigen zwischen den Pyrrhonischen Modi () des semantischen regresssus in indefinitum (), und dem wiederholten Rekurs auf ‘neue’ Metatheorien T', T, …, in denen man ‘neue’ berücksichtigt, alternative Deutungen erwägt und Fragen der Widerspruchsfreiheit beurteilt.Diese Analogien sind auch reflexiv in einem weiteren Sinne. ‐ werden für T, T, T, …, in einer Metatheorie T – bestimmt, für die sie auch gelten. Diese weitere Reflexivität legt nahe, dass ‘Probleme’ des skeptischen ‘Selbsf zweifels weder zu circuit vitiosi führen noch Scheinprobleme sind, sondern beachtenswerte Aspekte der Phänomene des indefiniten semantischen Regresses darstellen. (shrink)

Punning on names was common in Old Comedy. Aristophanes punned on the name of Lamachus, who died at Syracuse. In the same play he made the famous joke, ‘some went to Kamarina, others to Gela, and some to Katagela’—‘an invention of the poet's from the fact that the men's officers laughed at them’.

This annotated critical edition is the first attempt to make Morris's 42,000-word verse sequence accessible to a modern audience.

Given research and public interest for conditions related to an extended lifespan, we addressed the questions of what matters and what matters most for subsequent survival past age 80. The data was drawn from the population-based and multidisciplinary Swedish OCTO Twin Study, in which a sample consisting of identical and same-sex fraternal twin pairs, followed from age 80 until death, provided detailed data on health, physical functioning, life style, personality, and sociodemographic conditions. Information concerning date of birth and death were (...) obtained from population census register. We estimated heritability using an ACE model and evaluated the role of multiple predictors for the mortality-related hazard rate using Cox regression. Our findings confirmed a low heritability of 12%. As expected, longer survival was associated with being a female, an apolipoprotein E e4 allele non-carrier, and a non-smoker. Several diseases were found to be associated with shorter survival as well as certain health conditions. Stronger grip and better lung function, as well as better vision, and better cognitive function was related to longer survival. Social embeddedness, better self-evaluated health, and life-satisfaction were also significantly associated with longer survival. After controlling for the impact of comorbidity, functional markers, and personality-related predictors, we found that sex, cerebrovascular diseases, compromised cognitive functioning, self-related health, and life-satisfaction remained as strong predictors. Cancer was only associated with the mortality hazard when accounting for other co-morbidities. The survival estimates were mostly in anticipated directions and contained effect sizes within the expected range. Noteworthy, we found that some of the so-called “soft-markers” remained strong predictors, despite a control for other factors. For example, self-evaluation of health and ratings of life-satisfaction provide additional and valuable information. (shrink)

1. Kyoyuk iran muŏt in'ga -- 2. Kyoyuk ponwi ui sam -- 3. Kyoyuk yŏn'gu ŭi sae chip'yŏng.

Although disoriented young children reorient themselves in relation to the shape of the surrounding surface layout, cognitive accounts of this ability vary. The present paper tests three theories of reorientation: a snapshot theory based on visual image-matching computations, an adaptive combination theory proposing that diverse environmental cues to orientation are weighted according to their experienced reliability, and a modular theory centering on encapsulated computations of the shape of the extended surface layout. Seven experiments test these theories by manipulating four properties (...) of objects placed within a cylindrical space: their size, motion, dimensionality, and distance from the space’s borders. Their findings support the modular theory and suggest that disoriented search behavior centers on two processes: a reorientation process based on the geometry of the 3D surface layout, and a beacon-guidance process based on the local features of objects and surface markings. Ó 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. (shrink)

Disoriented animals from ants to humans reorient in accord with the shape of the surrounding surface layout: a behavioral pattern long taken as evidence for sensitivity to layout geometry. Recent computational models suggest, however, that the reorientation process may not depend on geometrical analyses but instead on the matching of brightness contours in 2D images of the environment. Here we test this suggestion by investigating young children's reorientation in enclosed environments. Children reoriented by extremely subtle geometric properties of the 3D (...) layout: bumps and ridges that protruded only slightly off the floor, producing edges with low contrast. Moreover, children failed to reorient by prominent brightness contours in continuous layouts with no distinctive 3D structure. The findings provide evidence that geometric layout representations support children's reorientation. (shrink)

Lawrence Sklar in his book, Physics and Chance (1993), proposes a sophisticated account of reduction of thermodynamics (TD) by statistical mechanics (SM). I argue that Sklar's analysis of the alleged reduction of TD by SM is problematic in several respects. I consider a few counterexamples to show that none of what Sklar takes to be the central features of successful reduction in science (unification and identification) holds in the case of TD and SM. I suggest the broader conclusion that a (...) more useful way of understanding the relationship between TD and SM is as collaboration and competition among alternative methodologies rather than reduction of one theory to another. (shrink)

Name der Zeitschrift: Klio Jahrgang: 97 Heft: 1 Seiten: 81-134.

전통철학, 특히 이른바 분석철학에서는 개념적 분석에 관한 논쟁들에서 전형적으로 “직관”에 호소해왔다. 그래서 분석철학자들은 자신들의 철학논증들에서 직관을 사용하는 것이 일반적이며, 직관을 중요한 증거의 원천으로 간주해왔다. 예를 들어 지식에 대한 전통적 분석에 대해 이의를 제기했던 게티어(E. Gettier)는 어떤 사람이 정당화된 옳은 믿음을 가졌지만 지식을 가졌다고 볼 수 없는 두 개의 반대사례를 제시했는데, 이때 게티어가 호소한 것이 바로 “직관”이었다. 이런 식으로 분석철학자들은 특수 사례나 시나리오들에 관해 선이론적 “직관”에 호소한다.BR 그런데 21세기 들어와 철학에서는 “실험철학”(experimental philosophy)이라 불리는 새로운 운동이 일어났다. 실험철학은 실험심리학 같은 사회과학의 방법을 (...) 사용하여 사람들이 철학적 문제들에 관해 생각하는 방식을 설문조사를 통해 조사한 다음, 그러한 설문조사의 결과가 전통적인 철학적 논쟁들과 어떻게 관계가 있는지를 검토하는 운동이다. 대체로 실험철학은 출발 초기에는 전통적인 분석철학에 대해 부정적이거나 적대적 관계를 맺는 것으로 생각되었지만, 지금은 실험철학이라는 이름 아래 다양한 기획이 포함될 정도로 그 스펙트럼이 매우 넓다. 그럼에도 불구하고 실험철학자들이 수행한 연구의 폭과 그들의 핵심 방법론적 가정들은 그 동안 꾸준히 논란이 되어 왔다. 따라서 실험철학 운동 자체 및 그 운동이 추구하는 기획에 대해 다양한 반론이나 비판이 꾸준히 전개되어왔다는 것은 전혀 놀랄 일이 아니다.BR 이런 상황에서 최근 A. 카우피넨(A. Kauppinen)은 실험철학 운동에 대해 꽤 통렬한 비판을 전개했다. 그는 일반인들의 통속적 직관을 토대로 증거로서의 직관에 대해 회의적 주장을 펴는 실험철학 운동에 대해 피상적 직관(surface intuition)과 견고한 직관(robust intuition)의 구별을 통해 비판을 전개하였다. “견고한 직관에 의거한 논증”(argument from robust intuitions)이라고 부를 수 있는 그의 비판은 실험철학자들의 설문조사에서 드러나는 일반인들의 통속적 직관이 피상적 직관일 뿐 견고한 직관이 아니라는 데서 출발한다. 카우피넨에 따르면, 우리가 철학에서 필요로 하는 직관은 견고한 직관이며, 그래서 개념을 둘러싸고 벌어지는 철학적 논쟁은 실험철학자들이 지지하는 설문조사 방법을 통해 시험될 수 없다는 것이다.BR 이 논문은 실험철학에 대한 카우피넨의 이러한 비판이 과연 정당한지 검토해보려는 것이다. 그래서 먼저 철학에서 직관을 증거로 사용해온 관행에 대해 간단히 기술하고, 그러한 직관에 대한 실험철학자들의 경험적 시험의 사례를 제시한다. 그런 다음 카우피넨 비판의 기초가 된 피상적 직관과 견고한 직관의 구별을 설명한 뒤, 그의 견고한 직관에 의거한 논증을 제시한다. 그리고 마지막으로 그 논증을 통해 실험철학 운동을 비판하고 있는 그의 주장이 실험철학 운동 자체에 대한 비판으로서 얼마나 유효한지 비판적으로 검토할 것이다. 이 과정에서 필자는 그 동안 전개되어온 실험철학 기획의 다양성을 고려하여 극단적 실험철학과 온건한 실험철학을 구별한다. 그런 다음 카우피넨의 비판은 설령 정당하다 할지라도 극단적 실험철학에만 적용될 뿐이어서 실험철학 전체 기획에 대한 비판으로서 유효하지 못하다고 주장할 것이다. (shrink)

Judges and jurors must make decisions in an environment of ignoranceand uncertainty for example by hearing statements of possibly unreliable ordishonest witnesses, assessing possibly doubtful or irrelevantevidence, and enduring attempts by the opponents to manipulate thejudge''s and the jurors'' perceptions and feelings. Three importantaspects of decision making in this environment are the quantificationof sufficient proof, the weighing of pieces of evidence, and therelevancy of evidence. This paper proposes a mathematical frameworkfor dealing with the two first aspects, namely the quantification ofproof (...) and weighing of evidence. Our approach is based on subjectivelogic, which is an extension of standard logic and probability theory,in which the notion of probability is extended by including degrees ofuncertainty. Subjective Logic is a framework for modelling humanreasoning and we show how it can be applied to legalreasoning. (shrink)

The paper studies the nature of understanding in condensed matter physics (CMP), mediated by the successful employment of its models. I first consider two obvious candidates for the criteria of model-based understanding, Van Fraassen's sense of empirical adequacy and Hacking's instrumental utility , and conclude that both are unsatisfactory. Inspired by Hasok Chang's recent proposal to reformulate realism as the pursuit of ontological plausibility in our system of knowledge, we may require the model under consideration to be understood (or intelligible) (...) before claiming model-based understanding. Here the understanding of a model typically consists of the following: figuring out at least one plausible (preferably realistic) physical mechanism for the model, determining the theoretical consequences of the model by mathematically probing it and developing our physical intuitions about the model. I consider the q-state Potts model to illustrate. After having understood a model, we may employ the model to understand its target phenomena in the world. This is done by matching one of the interpretative models of the model with the central features of the phenomena. The matching should be motivated (ideally both theoretically and empirically) in the sense that we have good reason to believe that the central features of the phenomena can be thought of as having more or less the same structure as postulated by the interpretative model. In conclusion, I propose a two-stage account of model-based understanding in CMP: (1) understanding of a model and (2) matching a target phenomenon with a well-motivated interpretative model of the model. Empirical success and instrumental utility both play their roles in the evaluation of how successful the model is, but are not the essential part of model-based understanding. (shrink)