Ideas about heredity and evolution are undergoing a revolutionary change. New findings in molecular biology challenge the gene-centered version of Darwinian theory according to which adaptation occurs only through natural selection of chance DNA variations. In Evolution in Four Dimensions, Eva Jablonka and Marion Lamb argue that there is more to heredity than genes. They trace four "dimensions" in evolution -- four inheritance systems that play a role in evolution: genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic. These systems, they argue, can all (...) provide variations on which natural selection can act. Evolution in Four Dimensions offers a richer, more complex view of evolution than the gene-based, one-dimensional view held by many today. The new synthesis advanced by Jablonka and Lamb makes clear that induced and acquired changes also play a role in evolution.After discussing each of the four inheritance systems in detail, Jablonka and Lamb "put Humpty Dumpty together again" by showing how all of these systems interact. They consider how each may have originated and guided evolutionary history and they discuss the social and philosophical implications of the four-dimensional view of evolution. Each chapter ends with a dialogue in which the authors engage the contrarieties of the fictional "I.M.," or Ifcha Mistabra -- Aramaic for "the opposite conjecture" -- refining their arguments against I.M.'s vigorous counterarguments. The lucid and accessible text is accompanied by artist-physician Anna Zeligowski's lively drawings, which humorously and effectively illustrate the authors' points. (shrink)

Does life have meaning? What is flourishing? How do we attain the good life? Philosophers, and many others of us, have explored these questions for centuries. As Eva Feder Kittay points out, however, there is a flaw in the essential premise of these questions: they seem oblivious to the very nature of the ways in which humans live, omitting a world of co-dependency, and of the fact that we live in and through our bodies, whether they are fully abled or (...) disabled. Our dependent, vulnerable, messy, changeable, and embodied experience colors everything about our lives both on the surface and when it comes to deeper concepts, but we tend to leave aside the body for the mind when it comes to philosophical matters. Disability offers a powerful challenge to long-held philosophical views about the nature of the good life, what provides meaning in our lives, and the centrality of reason, as well as questions of justice, dignity, and personhood. These concepts need not be distant and idealized; the answers are right before us, in the way humans interact with one another, care for one another, and need one another--whether they possess full mental capacities or have cognitive limitations. We need to revise our concepts of things like dignity and personhood in light of this important correction, Kittay argues. This is the first of two books in which Kittay will grapple with just how we need to revisit core philosophical ideas in light of disabled people's experience and way of being in the world. Kittay, an award-winning philosopher who is also the mother to a multiply-disabled daughter, interweaves the personal voice with the philosophical as a critical method of philosophical investigation. Here, she addresses why cognitive disability can reorient us to what truly matters, and questions the centrality of normalcy as part of a good life. With profound sensitivity and insight, Kittay examines other difficult topics: How can we look at the ethical questions regarding prenatal testing in light of a new appreciation of the personhood of disabled people? What do new possibilities in genetic testing imply for understanding disability, the family, and bioethics? How can we reconsider the importance of care, and how does it work best? In the process of pursuing these questions, Kittay articulates an ethic of care, which is the ethical theory most useful for claiming full rights for disabled people and providing the opportunities for everyone to live joyful and fulfilling lives. She applies the lessons of care to the controversial alteration of severely cognitively disabled children known as the Ashley Treatment, whereby a child's growth is halted with extensive estrogen treatment and related bodily interventions are justified. This book both imparts lessons that advocate on behalf of those with significant disabilities, and constructs a moral theory grounded on our ability to give, receive, and share care and love. Above all, it aims to adjust social attitudes and misconceptions about life with disability. (shrink)

We provide a Bayesian justification of the idea that, under certain conditions, the absence of an argument in favour of the truth of a hypothesis H constitutes a good argument against the truth of H.

Schupbach and Sprenger introduce a novel probabilistic approach to measuring the explanatory power that a given explanans exerts over a corresponding explanandum. Though we are sympathetic to their general approach, we argue that it does not adequately capture the way in which the causal explanatory power that c exerts on e varies with background knowledge. We then amend their approach so that it does capture this variance. Though our account of explanatory power is less ambitious than Schupbach and Sprenger’s in (...) the sense that it is limited to causal explanatory power, it is also more ambitious because we do not limit its domain to cases where c genuinely explains e. Instead, we claim that c causally explains e if and only if our account says that c explains e with some positive amount of causal explanatory power. (shrink)

In the last couple of years, increased attention has been directed at the question of whether there is such a thing as a distinctively political normativity. With few exceptions, this question has so far only been explored by political realists. However, the discussion about a distinctively political normativity raises methodological and meta-theoretical questions of general importance for political theory. Although the terminology varies, it is a widely distributed phenomenon within political theory to rely on a normative source which is said (...) to be political rather than moral, or at least foremost political. In light of this concern, the present paper moves beyond political realism in the attempt to explore alternative ways of understanding distinctively political normativity, in a way which may be useful for political theorists. More specifically, we investigate two candidate views, here labelled the “domain view” and the “role view,” respectively. The former traces distinctness to the “domain,” that is, to the circumstances of politics. This view has gained a lot of support in the literature in recent years. The latter traces distinctness to “role,” that is, the role-specific demands that normative-political principles make. Our twofold claim in this paper is that the domain view is problematic but that the role view is promising. (shrink)

In these replies, I react to comments on my paper “Facts about Incoherence as Non-Evidential Epistemic Reasons”, provided by Aleks Knoks, Sebastian Schmidt, Keshav Singh, and Conor McHugh. I discuss potential counterexamples to my claim that the fact that the subject’s doxastic attitudes are incoherent is an epistemic reason for her to suspend; whether such incoherence-based reasons bear on individual attitudes or only on combinations of attitudes; the prospects of restricting evidentialism about epistemic reasons to reasons to believe; whether incoherence-based (...) reasons are truly epistemic; the alleged normative and motivational expendability of incoherence-based reasons; the possibility of incoherence-based reasons to suspend without actual belief in the incoherent propositions; the relationship between suspension, inquiry, and incoherence; and the nature of suspension of judgment. (shrink)

Does y obtain under the counterfactual supposition that x? The answer to this question is famously thought to depend on whether y obtains in the most similar world in which x obtains. What this notion of ‘similarity’ consists in is controversial, but in recent years, graphical causal models have proved incredibly useful in getting a handle on considerations of similarity between worlds. One limitation of the resulting conception of similarity is that it says nothing about what would obtain were the (...) causal structure to be different from what it actually is, or from what we believe it to be. In this paper, we explore the possibility of using graphical causal models to resolve counterfactual queries about causal structure by introducing a notion of similarity between causal graphs. Since there are multiple principled senses in which a graph G* can be more similar to a graph G than a graph G**, we introduce multiple similarity metrics, as well as multiple ways to prioritize the various metrics when settling counterfactual queries about causal structure. (shrink)

In this paper, I defend a reasons-first view of epistemic justification, according to which the justification of our beliefs arises entirely in virtue of the epistemic reasons we possess. I remove three obstacles for this view, which result from its presupposition that epistemic reasons have to be possessed by the subject: the problem that reasons-first accounts of justification are necessarily circular; the problem that they cannot give special epistemic significance to perceptual experience; the problem that they have to say that (...) implicit biases provide epistemic. The first problem will be overcome by introducing presentational attitudes that are not in need of justification as basic ways of possessing epistemic reasons. The latter two problems will be solved by introducing epistemic rational capacities of two different kinds, which are exercised in mental states that are ways of possessing epistemic reasons, and by distinguishing these from mental states that are not exercises of epistemic rational capacities. (shrink)

In 2009, Tennie et al. proposed the theory of the Zone of Latent Solutions, defined as the range of behaviors an individual of a species can invent independently, i.e., which it can acquire without any form of social learning. By definition, species limited to their ZLS are unable to innovate and/or transmit behavioral traits outside their ZLS, i.e., they lack traits which go beyond the level of the individual—traits resulting from a gradual cultural evolution over successive transmission events [“cumulative culture”, (...) Boyd and Richerson ]. However, this does not exclude an influence of social learning on the population frequency of these behaviors: social learning can facilitate the acquisition of latent solutions and thus speed up and consolidate their spread within a population. Cultures—defined as behaviors at least influenced by social learning—are therefore still possible. Here, we elaborate on the ZLS account and relate it to the theories of Vygotsky who studied the role of social learning in human culture. We argue that the ZLS is a missing phylogenetic “baseline” of Vygotsky’s Zone of Actual Development. Vygotsky’s neglect of a need for a human “baseline ZAD” may have been due to his interpretation of Köhler’s work on great ape behaviors: Köhler used his observations on individual chimpanzees to draw conclusions about the chimpanzee species as a whole, stating that chimpanzees can only copy what they could have invented themselves, thus coming close to the ZLS concept. Vygotsky—studying the range of behaviors individuals could achieve independently—seemingly did not see that Köhler was suggesting a species “baseline”, upon which Vygotsky’s idea of an individual’s ZAD could develop. As a result, Vygotsky also did not see the need for a ZLS for his own study subjects: humans. Yet, there is no reason to assume that humans lack a ZLS, and in fact we present evidence for a human ZLS for tool-use behaviors. (shrink)

The technique of imaging was first introduced by Lewis, in order to provide a novel account of the probability of conditional propositions. In the intervening years, imaging has been the object of significant interest in both AI and philosophy, and has come to be seen as a philosophically important approach to probabilistic updating and belief revision. In this paper, we consider the possibility of generalising imaging to deal with uncertain evidence and partial belief revision. In particular, we introduce a new (...) logical criterion that any update rule should satisfy, and use it to evaluate a range of different approaches to generalising imaging to situations involving uncertain evidence. We show that none of the currently prevalent approaches to imaging allow for such a generalisation, although a lesser known version of imaging, introduced by Joyce, can be generalised in a way that mitigates these problems. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Reviewed by:Il Mostro e il sapiente: Studi sull'erotica grecaEva CantarellaRiccardo Vattuone. Il Mostro e il sapiente: Studi sull'erotica greca. Studi di Storia 11. Bologna: Pàtron, 2004. 345 pp. 15 black-and-white figs. Paper, €24."Il mostro e il sapiente" (the monster and the wise man), referred to in the title of Riccardo Vattuone's book, are, respectively, the loathed figure of the modern pedophile and an elected official who stands almost as (...) a symbol of wisdom, the great Athenian legislator Solon. Each of them, as Vattuone observes in the introduction, "loves" boys. No one, however, has ever for this reason considered the wise man Solon to be a monster, as today's media tend to view the modern pedophile. Thus it is clear from the title and made explicit in the foreword (7–10) that Vattuone is not merely interested in the past. As he repeats several times, "It is the past that puts the most significant questions to the contemporary age, and not vice-versa" (9, and passim). In this case, the past that interrogates the present is the pederastic relationship, and the question that this has asked Vattuone is whether or not there is a relationship between so-called Greek love and modern pedophilia. According to Vattuone, from the nineteenth century on, the immense quantity of literature about the pederastic relationship oscillates between radical condemnation and attempts to defend the past by "distancing it" (8). Il Mostro e il sapiente, he declares, was written to get away from this "ideological hypocrisy" and to dispel, if possible, "the suspicion that behind the contemporary pedophile there lurk the worst vices, the most obvious repressions of Western culture... and that that person is a creation of the system, constructed as a scapegoat for the unspeakable Other" (9).The following eight chapters are therefore dedicated to this objective. In the first, "Osservazioni preliminari: i crimini di Solone" (Preliminary Observations: the Crimes of Solon), Vattuone begins with an epigram of Straton (AP 12.246) to contest—in my opinion correctly—the reading of pederasty that he calls "anesthetic," according to which the pais would have experienced his relationship with the adult as a kind of social obligation, without feeling desire or pleasure. It is not only the adult that loves and desires, says Vattuone. Pederasty implies reciprocity of affection. On this point, as I observed years ago, I believe it very likely that Vattuone is approaching the truth. (See E. Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World [2d ed., Yale University Press, 2002], xii–xiii, and, at greater length, "A proposito di C. Calame, L'Amour en grece," Annales ESC 1999.)The second chapter, "Pais kalos. Una bellezza incomparabile" (Pais Kalos. An Incomparable Beauty), argues, correctly, against the idea that the boy's attractions depend on his resemblance to a woman. The scarce contact that Greek [End Page 461] men had with women has nothing to do with the reasons for which the paides from the age of approximately twelve to seventeen years were irresistible to the Greek man. Though their face and gaze might be soft, their body structure and ethos were virile. Pederasty was a relationship between males, among other things allowed and culturally valued only within the age limits to which an ample and exhaustive part of the chapter is dedicated.The third chapter, "Eros, un 'dovere' sociale?" (Eros, a Social "Duty?"), goes into the erotic aspect of the relationship, dedicating ample space to the problem of the so-called origins of pederasty. The Greeks considered that pederasty originated with a crime (the rape of Chrysippus), and modern scholars, according to Vattuone, have followed this line of thinking, concentrating their efforts on the attempt—this is a leitmotif of the book—to save the Greeks from accusations of immorality and perversion. A long section of criticism follows, attacking hypotheses of the historic-psychoanalytic type and those that link the social role of pederasty to "rites of passage," with the objective, according to Vattuone, of distancing it from us and the present world. I do not agree, however. As I have pointed out elsewhere, to connect a sexual relationship with a rite does not necessarily... (shrink)

Nielsen and Stewart (2024) introduced a novel intra-group criterion of algorithmic fairness called ‘spanning’. Here, I propose an alternative intra-group criterion and argue that is has some salient advantages over spanning.

There is a long-standing debate regarding the nature of the relationship between emotions and consciousness. Majority of existing computational models of emotions largely avoid the issue, and generally do not explicitly address distinctions between the conscious and the unconscious components of emotions. This paper highlights the importance of developing an adequately differentiated vocabulary describing the mental states of interest, and their features and components, for the development of computational models of the relationships between emotions and consciousness. We discuss current psychological (...) theories of emotion, highlighting specific points in the affective processes where links exist with consciousness, and possible roles played by each. We discuss examples of models that are beginning to address components of the interface between emotions and consciousness: models of social emotions, requiring explicit representations of the self; models of affective biases on attention; models of emotion and metacognition; and models of emotion regulation. We conclude with a discussion of some of the challenges associated with modeling mental states whose core distinguishing characteristic is an awareness of affective feelings, and highlight the importance of integrating the diverse approaches to emotion research and modeling currently existing within psychology and neuroscience. (shrink)

Current debates about reasons and reasoning often draw comparisons between epistemic and practical reasons and reasoning and presuppose substantial unity between the practical and epistemic domains. This stance seems to conflict with a stark Humean contrast between the two domains: With respect to practical reasons and reasoning, Hume highlights the role of impressions, especially the passions, in motivating and rationalizing action, while apparently downplaying the potential relevance of beliefs, reason, or reasons. With respect to epistemic reasons and theoretical reasoning, he (...) urges us to proportion our belief to the evidence (EHU 10.4), which suggests a significant epistemic role for evidential reasons. My contribution ar-gues that there is nonetheless a convincing and interesting unified Humean account of reasons and reasoning across both domains. To present my case, I first narrow down the unity claim that I am interested in. I then closely engage with Hume’s claims in epistemology, the philos-ophy of action, and metaethics to develop the unified Humean account. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Learning Music:Embodied Experience in the Life-WorldEva Alerby and Cecilia FermIn the present age, which is often signified as post-modern or knowledge-intensive, the calls for learning echo loud. Discussions of learning, as well as teaching, permeate almost all levels and arenas of our society, and have a sure place in every-day conversation as well as scientific debate. The concept of learning can be understood and explained in many different ways. (...) Our intention in this article is to make visible and discuss how learning music can be understood and explained from a life-world approach.By life-world approach we mean that learning is constituted by the experiences that we are having in the world. From that perspective it can be seen as a process which leads to some kind of change, whose utmost purpose is—consciously or unconsciously—to create meaning and make managing the world possible. In addition, we stress that learning does not arise nor is formed in a vacuum, but instead is found in complex contexts. In turn this creates the necessity of making learning situated and contextualized.1How one understands how music is learned is consequently influenced not only by what fundamental assumptions one holds about learning but also by prevailing views of music. Furthermore, how musical ability is regarded and whether musicality is accepted as an emotional or cognitive phenomenon is also [End Page 177] important. Other assumptions that need to be considered are whether or not it is possible to divide musicality into smaller parts and if that is the case, what is the relationship between these parts. One further question that has to be illuminated is the question about biological and social influences on musicality.2 According to Sture Brändström,3 musicality is sometimes divided into two categories—absolute contra relativistic musicality. The first category implies that musicality is regarded as a native ability, already existing within the human being, an ability that some people have and others lack. The second category reflects an approach that assumes that musicality is something everybody can acquire, it can be learned and appropriated. We will return later to this issue.These questions reveal a dualistic approach, specifically: whether musicality is an emotional or a cognitive phenomenon, or absolute or relative, which in turn leads to the question of whether or not learning music is constituted within or outside the human being. To expose problems related to this dualistic approach in music education, we will examine musical learning using life-world phenomenology as a theoretical framework, a brief description of which follows.Phenomenology: A Way of ThinkingAt the turn into the twentieth century, the German philosopher, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), named his philosophical approach phenomenology, and with that the development of modern phenomenology began. Phenomenology is both a method and a way of thought.4 He distinguished the fundamental principle of phenomenology as—'back to the things themselves.' According to Husserl it is through experiences that we gain access to things themselves. The concept of experience was essential to his formulation, and it became a key signature for the whole of phenomenology. His starting-point was how the world is experienced in a subjective way, and the aim was to find a way to describe the meaning of these subjective experiences. In other words, phenomenology has been summarized as a description of how the world is experienced by the person in the world.Various thinkers have interpreted phenomenology in different ways. Jan Bengtsson5 emphasized that phenomenological method should be named in the plural as methods. The phenomenology of the life-world, which was developed as an alternative to the so-called epoché, the special method of transcendental phenomenology, is a philosophy of the life-world without transcendental reduction. It is the life-world that constitutes the basis of our lives. It is the everyday world of our experiences, which we take for granted and where we live our lives. In other words it is the life-world that constitutes people's being-in-the-world.6 Through our existence we experience the concrete world in all its complexity, which is both historically and contextually dependent. Consequently... (shrink)

ABSTRACT In this paper I propose that examining Locke’s response to skepticism requires us to consider at least three distinct senses in which skepticism appears on the horizon of the Essay. Skepticism is addressed, directly or indirectly, (i) as a general outcome of philosophical inquiry, (ii) as a methodical decision to doubt, and also (iii) as the result of a particular problem that challenges the claim to knowledge. I think that by examining how Locke reacts to such issues, we get (...) a more accurate and nuanced picture of Locke’s relationship to skeptical philosophy. (shrink)

Analyzing the ancient Greek point of view concerning anger, shame and justice and a very modern one, one can see, that anger has a regulative function, but shame does as well. Anger puts the other in his place, thereby regulating hierarchies. Shame regulates the social relations of recognition. And both emotions also have an evaluative function, because anger evaluates a situation with regard to a humiliation; shame, with regard to a misdemeanor. In addition, attention has to be paid to the (...) correct molding of these emotions and the correct ways of using them in rearing to be good or just (i.e., in personality formation. (shrink)

Ziel dieses systematischen Ansatz ist es eine Antwort auf die Frage der Wahrheitswertzuschreibung für irreale Konditionalsätze zu geben. Die große philosophische Fragestellung, die damit verfolgt wird, betrifft das Verhältnis von Sprache und Welt, Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit. Am Ende wird geklärt inwiefern logische Strukturen einen Weltbezug haben. Damit ist ein Vorschlag der Naturalisierung der Normativität der Semantik verbunden. Außer sprachphilosophischen Überlegungen werden auch erkenntnistheoretische und wissenschaftstheoretische Überlegungen angestellt. -/- Inhaltsverzeichnis -/- Vorwort 7 -/- Einführung 8 -/- I. Tatsachen I -/- 1. (...) Unabhängigkeit von Tatsachen und Variationen des Gegebenen 37 1.1 Was wäre, wenn Tatsachen nicht unabhängig voneinander wären? 40 1.2 Folgen für Überlegungen zu Variationen des Gegebenen, wenn Tatsachen nicht unabhängig voneinander wären 41 1.3 Das Prinzip der Ununterscheidbarkeit 43 1.4 Modale Kontexte und referentielle Undurchlässigkeit 46 1.5 Wahrheitswertsemantik und wesentliche Eigenschaften 49 1.6 Das modale Argument 51 1.7 Eine einzige Tatsache 51 1.8 Situationssemantik 55 1.9 Unabhängigkeit von Tatsachen II 61 1.10 Referentielle und attributive Lesart 63 -/- Probleme mit Tatsachen als Wahrmachern; kontingente und notwendige oder wesentliche Eigenschaften; attributive und referentielle Lesart; Tatsachen als Voraussetzung -/- II. Notwendigkeit -/- 2. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche I 68 -/- Der Notwendigkeitscharakter des Apriorischen; Kant und Kripke; Identität und Notwendigkeit; Identität und kontrafaktische Sätze; Identität und materieller Ursprung; theoretische Identifikation und natürliche Arten; wesentliche Eigenschaften und notwendige Identifikation; absolute Identität -/- 3. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche II 84 3.1 Der Notwendigkeitscharakter des Apriorischen oder der Aprioritätscharakter des Möglichen. Induktionsprobleme 86 3.2 Der Möglichkeitsbegriff im "Tractatus" 92 -/- Die Rolle des Apriori für die Begriffe Möglichkeit und Notwendigkeit; Möglichkeit und Notwendigkeit in der Logik; der Möglichkeitsbegriff im Tractatus; Kritik von Seiten des Intuitionismus -/- 4. Das Notwendige bestimmt das Mögliche III 97 -/- Die Bedeutung von Quines Kritik an der Unterscheidung von analytisch und synthetisch für den Notwendigkeitsbegriff; Kritik an dieser Kritik und an "Es könnte auch anders sein" als Ausdruck jedweder Unmöglichkeit von Notwendigkeit. Verhältnis zwischen logischen Gesetzen und Erfahrung -/- III. Projektion und Regelfolgen -/- 5. Ein Verständnis von Möglichkeit und Projektion ohne den Begriff der Notwendigkeit. Der Möglichkeitsbegriff in den "Bemerkungen zu den Grundlagen der Mathematik" von Ludwig Wittgenstein 109 -/- Mathematisches Apriori und Möglichkeit; Möglichkeit ohne mathematisches Apriori; das Verhältnis von Möglichkeit und Neuem oder Anderem; Erfahrung und Möglichkeit, Möglichkeit und Symbol; Möglichkeit und Normativität; Projektion von Symbolen -/- 6. Ähnlichkeit und Projektion - Projektion und Regelfolgen 120 -/- Möglichkeit als Bereich der Induktion oder des Regelfolgens. Parallelen zwischen Kripkes Skepsis in bezug auf Regelfolgen und Goodmans Fassung des Induktionsproblems. Tatsache und Wirklichkeit. Identität und Ähnlichkeit; Möglichkeit als enge Relation zur Wirklichkeit; die Reduktion von Möglichem auf Wirkliches bei Goodman; Erfahrung und Kriterien der Identität; Regeln als Praxis und ihr normativer Gehalt; tatsächliche Fortsetzbarkeit und Normativität -/- IV. Tatsachen II -/- 7. Tatsachen und Welterzeuger I 134 -/- Der Tatsachenbegriff Goodmans; Tatsachen, denen kein realistischer Wahrheitsbegriff zugrunde liegt; richtige und falsche Weltversionen; die Versöhnung von Weltversionen; relevante Merkmale und Tatsachen; Tatsachen erzeugen Wirklichkeiten, erzeugte Weltversionen und Tatsachenbegriff -/- V. Wirklichkeit -/- 8. Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit 147 -/- Wirklichkeit von Dingen, Erzählungen und Empfindungen; Historizität ist nicht gleich Relativität; Goodmans mathematische Beispiele zum Verhältnis zwischen Wirklichkeit, Wahrheit und Welt; Mathematik und Erfahrung; Verankerung, Abgeschlossenheit und Unabgeschlossenheit von Wirklichkeit und Möglichkeit -/- 9. Unendlichkeit und Wirklichkeit 157 -/- Das Unendliche ist größer als die Wirklichkeit; Unendlichkeit und Situationssemantik; Unendlichkeit und Fortsetzbarkeit; Definition der minimalen Situation; Verhältnis zwischen aktualer Unendlichkeit und Wirklichkeit, von Wirklichkeit und Tatsache und von Möglichkeit und Unendlichkeit; Definition von echter aktualer Unendlichkeit und "praktischer" Unendlichkeit mit Hilfe des Begriffs der Linearität -/- VI. Tatsachen III -/- 10. Tatsachen und Welterzeuger II 172 10.1 Wissen und Erfahrung 181 10.2 Wissen und Tatsachen 183 10.3 Zweifel an der Existenz der Welt 184 10.4 Feststehende und nicht feststehende Sätze 186 10.5 Interner Realismus und interner Interpretationismus 189 10.6 Der Tatsachenbegriff in "Über Gewißheit" 191 -/- Tatsachen und Interpretationsphilosophie; skeptische Positionen und Tatsachen; logische Vorgängigkeit unter den Interpretationsebenen?; transzendentale Argumentationen und Notwendigkeit von Begriffsystemen; der logische Stellenwert von Tatsachenfeststellungen -/- 11. Tatsachen und Situationen 197 -/- Tatsachen als Individuen; Tatsachen als wahre Propositionen; Tatsachen als minimale Situationen; Tatsachen und Unendlichkeit; Tatsachen und Projektion; Tatsachen und Regelfolgen -/- VII. Relationen -/- 12. Interne und externe Relationen. Was kann der Begriff der internen Relation leisten? 209 -/- Interne und externe Relationen; Parallelen bei der Unterscheidung von externen und internen Relationen zu den Unterscheidungen von Logik und Naturgeschichte, synthetischen Sätzen a priori und Erfahrung und Regelsätzen und Erfahrung -/- 13. Kontingente Tatsachen und gültiges Urteilen. 224 -/- Kratzers Klumpungsrelation (Lumps of Thought) als Enthaltenseinsrelation und G. E. Moores materiale Implikation; zurück zu den Smaragden Goodmans; das Hinzuziehen allgemeiner, verankerter Grundsätze, deren Verankerung nicht auf reiner Gewohnheit beruht -/- 14. Relationen und kontrafaktisches Schließen 239 -/- Nackte Einzeldinge und Universalien sowie ihre modalen Grundlagen; Relationen als Leitfaden für Urteile, zurück zu internen und externen Relationen; der durch Naturgeschichte übermittelte Maßstab der Sprache -/- VIII. Naturgeschichte -/- 15. Naturgeschichte 254 -/- Naturgeschichte als feststehender Hintergrund für kontingente Sprache und gültiges Urteilen; die Begründung von Normativität in Naturgeschichte; Naturgeschichte als Apriori -/- 16. Sprache und Naturgeschichte. Ein Resümee 266 -/- Appendix: Weltrealisten hinsichtlich möglicher Welten 273 -/- Literaturverzeichnis 279. (shrink)

Das Verhältnis von Emotionen, Gefühl, Sprache und Bewusstsein wird aus verschiedenen Perspektiven betrachtet. Zum einen aus zweien, die versuchen, einen repräsentationstheoretischen Ansatz mit Sprache zu verbinden, wobei exemplarisch für einen neurowissenschaftlichen Ansatz Antonio Damasios Theorie betrachtet wird, und für die sprachanalytische Perspektive die von Michael Tye und Fred Dretske. Das Zusammenspiel von Empfindung, Gefühl und Bewusstsein wird dabei aus neurowissenschaftlicher und aus analytischer Sicht jeweils ganz unterschiedlich konzipiert, aber es wird deutlich, dass die Klärung des Zusammenwirkens dieser Aspekte zentral ist (...) für phänomenales Bewusstsein. Gemeinsam ist den beiden Ansätzen jedoch, dass sie weder die Rolle von Handlungszusammenhängen noch die Rolle des Anderen in ihre Überlegungen mit einbeziehen. Um Letzteres leisten zu können, wird in dieser Arbeit exemplarisch auf das Triangulationsmodell des Spracherwerbs zurückgegriffen wie es Michael Tomasello in seinen Arbeiten verwendet. Es wird speziell für Emotionen modifiziert, um zu erläutern wie es kommt, dass wir zwar einerseits Sprache benötigen, um Emotionen in spezifischer phänomenaler Weise zu erfahren, das wir andererseits aber schon etwas spüren müssen, worauf wir Sprache anwenden können. Es wird erläutert, dass das Triangulationsmodell im Falle von Emotionen nur anwendbar ist, weil es so etwas wie einen universal zugänglichen Emotionsausdruck gibt, der somit eine Voraussetzung dafür ist, dass wir subjektiv spezifische Emotionen erleben. Hierin unterscheidet sich dieser Ansatz auch von rein narrativen Emotionstheorien, mit denen es ansonsten Übereinstimmungen gibt. Denn es ist wichtig zu sehen, dass Emotionen nur deshalb eine spezifische Bedeutung für uns erhalten können, weil wir uns nur auf Grund des universalen Ausdrucks gemeinsam auf sie beziehen können. Da das Moment der Empfindung Teil der Referenzbeziehung ist, wird es auch Teil der Bedeutung des Begriffes für die jeweilige Emotion. Das Triangulationsmodell wird nicht nur herangezogen, um das Verhältnis von Sprache, Emotion und phänomenalem Erleben zu klären, sondern auch, weil es sich eignet, die Frage des Zusammenspiels der Genese von subjektiv erlebten Emotionen und der Selbstbewusstwerdung darzulegen. Abschließen wird erörtert, ob sich das trianguläre Modell des Spracherwerbs außer auf Emotionen auch auf Wahrnehmungsvorgänge wie Sehen, Hören, Riechen oder Tasten anwenden lässt. (shrink)

Emotionen sind als erlebte Bewertungen eine Form von Normativität, die intrinsisch im Spüren enthalten ist, also weder explizit gefolgert noch propositional gefasst ist. Geprüft wird in diesem Kapitel, ob Emotionen dadurch als natürliche Grundlage selbst für moralische oder genuine Normativität gelten können und sich diese letztere Form der Normativität daher auf biologisch angelegte Formen von Normativität reduzieren lässt. Diese Diskussion weist insofern Überschneidungen mit den in den vorangegangenen Kapiteln erörterten Fragen auf, als die verschiedenen Formen der Bewertung mit verschiedenen Bewusstseinsstufen (...) in Verbindung gebracht werden und verschiedene Formen des Selbstverhältnisses erfordern. Zudem lässt sich die Diskussion um die natürliche Normativität von Emotionen mit ausgearbeiteten Versuchen verbinden, semantischen Gehalt mentaler Zustände wie zum Beispiel Emotionen auf natürliche Grundlagen zu reduzieren. Bekannt geworden sind diese Ansätze unter dem Stichwort „Teleosemantik“. Ob die Teleosemantik eine tragfähige Theorie ist, um den semantischen Gehalt mentaler Zustände zu naturalisieren, wird in Auseinandersetzung mit an ihr formulierter Kritik und deren Stichhaltigkeit erörtert, insbesondere mit der von Jerry Fodor, Wolfgang Detel, und Daniel Dennett. Der Schluss, welcher aus diesen Diskussionen gezogen wird, lautet dann, dass man sich an lebensweltlichen Praktiken der wechselseitigen Zuschreibung von Bedeutungen und Gedanken orientieren muss, um die normativen Eigenschaften des Geistigen richtig zu verstehen, weil die Normativität mentaler Gehalte relativ zu einer intersubjektiven, sprachlich verfassten Zuschreibungspraxis zu verstehen ist, die historisch gewachsen ist. Dennoch wird im Anschluss daran noch ein der Versuch der Naturalisierung von Geistigem, nämlich von Bewusstsein durch Peter McLaughlin untersucht. Dort wird der Frage nachgegangen, ob Lebewesen einen bestimmten Zweck beziehungsweise Telos haben, und damit Interessen und ein Wohl haben, dem förderlich zu sein, die Funktion phänomenalen Bewusstseins sein könnte, also etwa auch die Funktion von Emotionen. Dabei stoßen wir ein weiteres Mal im Verlauf dieses Buches auf die Renaissance aristotelischer Theorie, denn die Frage, was es heißt, dass ein Lebewesen ein Wohl hat, wird mit Verweis auf den aristotelischen Begriff des ergons versucht zu beantworten. Wie steht es mit dem ergon als dem Wohl eines Lebewesens und damit als Naturalisierungsgrundlage, wenn als charakteristische Tätigkeit des Organismus seine Selbsterhaltung oder Selbstproduktion angesehen wird? Und wie mit naturgegebenen Notwendigkeiten als Naturalisierungsgrundlage? Zum einen wird gezeigt, dass die meisten dieser Versuche im Bemühen um eine Reduktion wiederum normative Begriffe wie Wohl oder Interesse verwenden müssen. Zum anderen wird darauf verwiesen, dass der Mensch sich auf Grund selbst anerkannter genuiner Normen und Werte gegen natürliche Normen wie die der Selbsterhaltung entscheiden kann. (shrink)

Kurt Gödel ist als genialer Mathematiker und Logiker bekannt, seltener als Autor einiger weniger philosophischer Aufsätze. Daher wird man erstaunt sein, wenn er mit der Rezeption antiker Philosophietraditionen in Verbindung gebracht wird. Diejenigen allerdings, welche wissen, dass Gödel im Grandjean Fragebogen 1975, drei Jahre vor seinem Tod, lediglich den Mathematiker Philipp Furtwängler sowie den Philosophiehistoriker Heinrich Gomperz als für ihn wichtige Lehrer benannt hat, und denen zudem bekannt ist, dass Heinrich Gomperz in Wien unter anderem antike Philosophiegeschichte gelehrt hat, mögen (...) eine Ahnung haben, wo die Quelle dieser Rezeption und der Anstoß für sie zu finden ist. Was sie beinhaltet, wird zu erläutern sein. (shrink)

Gefühl und Wissen wurden in der Philosophie meist als Gegensätze gesehen. So ist Wissen traditioneller Weise als begründete oder gerechtfertigte wahre Meinung definiert. Kann man, wenn man eine solche Definition zu Grunde legt, sagen, dass man weiß, dass man liebt? Was sollte als Begründung oder Rechtfertigung gelten können?

Wie entwickelt sich ein ich-loses Selbstgefühl? Wie vollzieht sich der Schritt zum Selbstbewusstsein? Und wie wird aus einer emotionalen Reaktion ein Werturteil? „Vom Leben zur Bedeutung“ beschreibt die Übergänge zwischen verschiedenen Erscheinungsformen des Geistigen. Die Rolle der Sprache wird dabei ebenso reflektiert wie das Konzept des Intentionalen als Element der Theorie der Emotionen, der Theorie sprachlicher Bedeutung und der Philosophie des Geistes. -/- 1. Die wichtigsten aktuellen Debatten in Kognitions- und Kulturwissenschaften werden aufgegriffen: Einbezug der Tiere, Emotionsforschung, Leiblichkeit. 2. Bislang (...) vernachlässigte Fragen nach Übergängen zwischen Bewusstseinsformen und Formen des Normativen werden erörtert. 3. Die Studien werden in die aktuelle Naturalismusdebatte eingebettet. (shrink)

In dieser Arbeit wird Abbo von Fleury für die Philosophie- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte neu erschlossen und gezeigt, inwiefern die Philosophie der Zeit Einfluss auf die Entwicklung der Wissenschaften dieser Epoche hatte und welche Rolle Bilder in dieser Wissenschaftsepoche für die Erkenntnis hatten.