In 1628, Harvey published his blood circulation theory, which triggered questionings by Riolan and Descartes at several levels: metaphysical, physiological, anatomical, institutional. The blood controversy tackles various conceptions of life that refer to various metaphysical backgrounds (Aristotelician, Cartesian or Neoplatonic), several kinds of relationships between natural philosophy and theology (compatibility, strict distinction, a balance between the two), distinct representations of the human body (dynamic, mechanic, aesthetic). It illustrates a point in time when medicine reforms and reorganizes its epistemic style and (...) its rationality in order to explain the complexity of the body’s fabric. (shrink)

Plus que jamais la science fait partie de notre vie ordinaire. Elle constitue une part de notre patrimoine commun ; elle détermine notre rapport au monde en nous aidant à poser des choix théoriques et pratiques notamment en matière énergétique, médicale, environnementale, sociale ou technologique ; elle nous sert de modèle pour déterminer les critères de la rationalité et de consensus. En Europe, plus de la moitié des citoyens déclarent avoir étudié la science et plus de 40 % estiment qu’ell...

La vieillesse constitue une pierre de touche pour toute théorie médicale : elle oblige à rendre raison de la temporalité à l’œuvre dans la vie. Aux yeux de Stahl, les iatromécaniciens méconnaissent la dimension temporelle de l’organisme ; en particulier, ils en ignorent la périodicité. Comprendre la vieillesse suppose donc la critique de la représentation linéaire du temps organique, que développe la mécanique et qui réduit le vivant au seul composé physique et chimique. Il reste alors à trouver la cause (...) de la périodicité organique : sur ce point, Georg Ernst Stahl critique Thomas Sydenham, qui reconnaît certes la périodicité du vivant mais nie la possibilité d’une médecine étiologique. Pour sa part, le médecin de Halle cherche à rendre compte du vieillissement en lien avec les actions organiques fondamentales : le tonus, la circulation, l’excrétion, la sécrétion. (shrink)

Con esta comunicación pretendemos evaluar el alcance de lo que podemos denominar «neurohermenéutica». ¿Qué es? ¿Cómo puede caracterizarse? Se trata de aplicar el desarrollo de las cuestiones de neurociencia y ciencias cognitivas al desarrollo de la hermenéutica contemporánea. Dos son las estrategias posibles: 1) «hermenéutica de la neurociencia», y mostrar sus presupuestos, su estrategia conceptual y analizar sus implicaciones sociales y culturales, y 2) «neurociencia de la hermenéutica», e intentar analizar el sustrato mental de nuestras interpretaciones del mundo; así se (...) ha desarrollado la llamada «neurología de la narración». Ponderamos la consideración que afirma que nuestro cerebro es creador de cultura y que a su vez él es producto cultural. Decir «neurohermenéutica» es preguntarnos, por tanto: ¿Qué interpretación del mundo y de nosotros mismos nos ofrecen la neurociencias? ¿Cuáles son las bases neurológicas de nuestra definición como seres hermenéuticos e interpretadores? (shrink)

Beliefs are commonly attributed to groups or collective entities. But what is the nature of group belief? Summativism and nonsummativism are two main rival views regarding the nature of group belief. On the one hand, summativism holds that, necessarily, a group g has a belief B only if at least one individual i is both a member of g and has B. On the other hand, non-summativism holds that it is possible for a group g to have a belief B (...) even if no member of g has B. My aim in this paper is to consider whether divergence arguments for non-summativism and against summativism about group belief are sound. Such divergence arguments aim to show that there can be a divergence between belief at the group level and the corresponding belief at the individual level. I will argue that these divergence arguments do not decisively defeat a minimal version of summativism. In order to accomplish this goal, I have the following plan: In section 2, I will analyze the structure of two important counterexamples against the summativist view, which are based on divergence arguments. Such counterexamples are based on the idea that a group decides to adopt a particular group belief, even if none of its members holds the belief in question. However, in section 3, I will show that these counterexamples fail, because they can be explained without the need to posit group beliefs. More specifically, I argue that in these apparent counterexamples, we have only a ‘group acceptance’ phenomenon and not a ‘group belief’ phenomenon. For this conclusion, I advance two arguments: in subsection 3.1, I formulate an argument from doxastic involuntarism, and in subsection 3.2, I develop an argument from truth connection. Thus, summativism is not defeated by divergence arguments. Lastly, in section 4, I will conclude with some advantages of summativism. (shrink)

Fort, da. Loin, ici. L’enfant joue avec la bobine de fil qui s’éloigne et disparaît, puis revient. Enracinement, déracinement, certaines expériences ancrent mon corps dans une présence à soi, au monde et aux autres, tandis que d’autres me rendent étrangère à moi-même, aux autres et au monde. Les modalités du jeu ou de l’existence se cristallisent dans le corps, qui oscille entre ces deux pôles : il s’affirme et se nie, il s’impose et se retire, il procure plaisir et peine, (...) il se donne et se r... (shrink)

La crisis contemporánea sobre la iniciación sacramental demanda una clarificación doctrinal y una nueva re-programación en la vida de las comunidades. Tras constatar su actualidad paradoja en la deshilachada cultura contemporánea, este estudio, selectivo y sucinto, aborda en su parte nuclear los ejes definidores de la novedad cristiano-pascual, desde las sugerentes bases antropológicas a su semántica teológica propia, con un especial detenimiento en los rasgos formales que, desde su unidad orgánica, le dan su singular sentido procesal y su identidad en (...) el ámbito de la vida eclesial. A partir de ellos, se imponen, como urgencias inaplazables, una serie de cuestionamientos y retos a la praxis de la fe de las comunidades. (shrink)

The aim of this paper is to relate two trending topics in contemporary epistemology: the discussion of group knowledge and the discussion of knowledge-first approach. In social epistemology no one has seriously applied and developed Williamson’s theory of knowledge-first approach to the case of group knowledge yet. For example, scholars of group knowledge typically assume that knowledge is analyzed in terms of more basic concepts, such as group belief or acceptance, group justification, and so on. However, if Williamson’s theory of (...) knowledge is correct, these are not good analyzes for understanding group knowledge. For, in such framework, knowledge is not analyzed in terms of belief and justification, and the same should apply to group knowledge. Thus, we propose to analyze which consequences Williamson’s theory has for social epistemology, namely for an understanding of group knowledge. The questions that will guide this article are the following: What is a knowledge-first approach to group knowledge? And what does a knowledge-first approach teach us with regard to one of the most pressing issues of social epistemology, namely the dispute between summativists and non-summativists accounts of groups? We claim that a knowledge-first account of group knowledge can be offered and that it favors non-summativism. (shrink)

ArgumentAt the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, ageing was specifically a medical issue. Indeed, on the one hand, ageing is a normal process of living; on the other hand, old age often entails specific pathologies. Is it really possible to dissociate old age from pathology? If so, how can we think of old age and explain both the necessity and the normality of it? If not, what is the cause of this dysfunction? Modern medical controversies (...) argue along the lines of the respective partisans ofiatromecanism, empirical medicine, and animist medicine. Furthermore, it progressively appears that the issue of aging must also be addressed within the social field, where old age is affected by sanitary, economic, and strategic conditions. Indeed, doctors, economists, and philosophers even tried to assess old age quantitatively with new methods of arithmetic. Thus, in this paper, we want to draw what constitutes the systems of knowledge of old age as a medical category located at the borderlines between epistemological, practical, and social challenges. (shrink)

À l'orée du xvme siècle, Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz et Friedrich Hoffmann critiquent la théorie médicale de Georg Ernst Stahl. Ils trient le vrai du faux. En l'occurrence, ils reprennent à leur compte la définition stahlienne de la respiration en l'extirpant de ses fondements animistes pour la placer dans une épistémologie soumise au principe de raison suffisante et au modèle mécanique. La découverte stahlienne consiste à penser la respiration comme ventilation calorifique à l'encontre de la conception antique ; les iatromécaniciens reconnaissent (...) la justesse de la notion stahlienne, ils essaient alors de la transposer dans un modèle mécanique de la ventilation. Cette reprise dans un contexte épistémologique différent implique une analyse critique de l'idée de découverte« vraie» dans son contenu, mais « fausse» dans ses hypothèses. Elle oblige en outre à interroger l'épistémologie de la connaissance médicale, en tant que science et thérapeutique, et ses liens avec les autres disciplines. En effet, si Leibniz philosophe et Hoffmann médecin prennent au sérieux la théorie animiste de Stahl, c'est que l'importance de ses découvertes met en cause les fondements de la médecine. (shrink)

Desde la separación estricta de ética y derecho, la Rechtslehre kantiana sostiene que es la ética la que exige al sujeto que haga suya la máxima de actuar conforme al derecho. En la misma línea defiende J. F. Kervégan que los sujetos habríamos de reconocer como un deber ético el respeto a las normas jurídicas, sin que esto quiera decir que el derecho dependa de la ética, pues en estricto derecho no podría tenerse a la intención de conciencia como móvil (...) de la acción justa. Lo que el derecho regula y juzga son las acciones exteriores, y también el móvil tiene que es el poder coercitivo, que el derecho, a diferencia de la ética, tiene la facultad de imponer a la sociedad a fin de que cada miembro de ella en su acción externa evite por su propio interés perjudicar la libertad de cualquier otro. Por esta unicidad del móvil sostiene Kant que derecho y facultad de coaccionar significan una y la misma cosa. El formalismo de su planteamiento impide a Kant entrar en la complejidad del entramado de derechos y deberes, de bienes y cargas, que hace de la justicia distributiva el verdadero objeto del arte jurídico. Y por su externalización estricta del derecho reduce al jurista a la observancia de los textos, ignora el procedimiento de la controversia judicial, excluye la equidad como ajena al derecho, y convierte al derecho en el gendarme de la moral . En cuanto a la intención interior, una cosa es que las leyes no puedan motivar el albedrío por la conciencia de la obligación, y otra que si derecho y coacción significaran lo mismo no habría diferencia entre cumplir la ley para evitar el castigo o eludir el castigo burlando la ley -opción ésta que a muchos resultaría más provechosa, dado que el poder del Estado es incapaz de vigilar en cada momento a cada sujeto, y que los vigilantes mismos necesitan ser vigilados, ad infinitum. Tras una breve alusión a los conocidos argumentos de Platón, Hobbes y Montesquieu sobre la obediencia voluntaria como el otro móvil del derecho, no menos necesario que la coerción, se recuerda que también el profesor Kervégan ha defendido en otro contexto que un orden jurídico cualquiera tiene dos componentes irreductibles entre sí: el sistema de normas que define lo que debe ser y la decisión que conforma el ser al deber-ser. Finalmente, en el derecho interestatal no puede Kant invocar la facultad de coaccionar, que deja de significar lo mismo que "derecho" porque, al no haber ninguna fuerza superior a la soberanía de los Estados, el pacto durará hasta que alguno de ellos lo incumpla por su libre y soberana decisión. From a firm distinction between ethics and right, the Kantian Rechtslehre holds that the demand to adopt the maxim to act according to the right is an ethical demand. Also J.F. Kervégan defends that individuals should recognize the ethical obligation to respect juridical rules, but this does not mean that right depends on ethics, because, in strict right, internal disposition or intention could not be considered as motive for the rightful action. Law regulates and judges the external actions and also the motive has to be external as it is external the coercion that right -but not ethics- can impose on society so that each member of it, for his own interest, does not damage in his external agency any other member's freedom. Because of this only one motive, Kant declares that right and coercion's capacity signify the same thing. His formalist position stops him to go into the complex network of rights and duties, of advantages and burdens, which makes distributive justice the true subject of juridical art. Moreover, because of the strict externals of the law Kant is unaware of the juridical controversy, reduces the jurist to the observance of texts, ejects the equity as not right's own, and risks to transform the right in the gendarme of morals . With regard to intention, one thing is that in strict law the internal disposition can not be deemed as the motive, and other thing is that if law and coercion's capacity signify the same thing, there is no difference between obeing the law to avoide the punishment, or avoiding the punishment in breaking the law; then, the last option would be profitable for too many people, since the coercion power is not able to survey in every moment each individual, and the watchmen themselves need to be watched over and so on. After a short mention of the well known Plato, Hobbes and Montesquieu's arguments about the voluntary obedience as the other motive of the strict right, not less necessary than coercion, we remember that J. F. Kervégan also defended in another context that any juridical order has two irreducible le système des normes générales qui définissent ce qui doit être, et la décision qui conforme l'être au devoir-être. Finally, in the interstates right, Kant can not maintain that right and capacity of coercion mean the same thing, because there is not any force over the sovereignty of the States, and therefore the contract will last till one of them breaks it by its free and sovereign decision. (shrink)

The idea of solidarity is in vogue, especially since the eruption of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the term “solidarity,” as used in nursing, is imprecise and vague, lacking clear definition and connoting a variety of general meanings. Based on the original meaning of “solidarity” in ancient Roman law, this article captures the archetypical idea of solidarity from a historical and interdisciplinary perspective. This archetypical or primary meaning comes before the development of any other meanings of the word, and it is (...) therefore authentic and genuine because it does not derive from something else. After establishing the archetypical meaning of solidarity, the article translates this meaning into the area of nursing and demonstrates a deep connectivity between healthcare and solidarity. The second part of the article offers and develops a new definition of nursing solidarity as the responsibility for the healthcare of a person (unit) shared as a whole (entirety) by that person and a nurse or a nursing team (plurality). This new definition has some implications for nursing practice and education, since the definition emphasizes the idea that solidarity helps to (a) foster respect and avoid discrimination, (b) promote cohesion in health communities, (c) increase individual responsibility and a spirit of service, (d) stimulate motivation, (e) improve communication, (f) create an engaging workplace, and (g) develop leadership. (shrink)

The quasispecies theory is a helpful concept in the explanation of RNA virus evolution and behaviour, with a relevant impact on methods used to fight viral diseases. It has undergone some adaptations to integrate new empirical data, especially the non-deterministic nature of mutagenesis, and the variety of behavioural motifs in cooperation, competition, communication, innovation, integration, and exaptation. Also, the consortial structure of quasispecies with complementary roles of memory genomes of minority populations better fits the empirical data than did the original (...) concept of a master sequence and its mutant spectra. The high productivity of quasispecies variants generates unique sequences that never existed before and will never exist again. In the present essay, we underline that such sequences represent really new ontological entities, not just error copies of previous ones. Their primary unique property, the incredible variant production, is suggested here as quasispecies productivity, which replaces the error-replication narrative to better fit into a new relationship between mankind and living nature in the twenty-first century. (shrink)

El objetivo de este trabajo es situar la ética del cuidado en contexto de las éticas de la responsabilidad. Para ello analizamos la orientación hacia el cuidado en las éticas de la responsabilidad mostrando la transición de una responsabilidad limitada por el cálculo consecuencialista en la actividad política, a una responsabilidad integral exigida por la preservación de la naturaleza ante los desafíos de la ciencia y la técnica. Interpretamos la aportación de Carol Gilligan en términos de «provocación » a la (...) ética contemporánea para que el cuidado no sea únicamente una categoría sentimental o afectiva sino una categoría con la que reconstruir reflexivamente la justicia social. Esta interpretación evita que la orientación al cuidado se reduzca a una introducción del género en la ética de la justicia y minusvalore el papel de la fundamentación en detrimento del activismo. Este fortalecimiento el cuidado de la responsabilidad resulta fecundo si leemos a Gilligan desde Hans Jonas. Se construye así una responsabilidad sustantiva e integral que levanta la «voz» y se convierte en grito para romper con el descuido, la indiferencia y la insensibilidad. (shrink)

A epistemologia da crença religiosa é uma área da filosofia da religião que procura responder ao seguinte problema: haverá justificação para se ter fé sem provas, argumentos ou indícios? Ou formulando de outra forma: será epistemicamente legítimo acreditar em Deus sem provas, argumentos ou indícios? Além das respostas tradicionais de William Clifford e de William James a esse problema, há uma resposta mais contemporânea e filosoficamente prometedora: a epistemologia reformista de Alvin Plantinga (n. 1932). Chama-se “reformista” à sua epistemologia porque (...) este filósofo se identifica com o pensamento reformista, tradição protestante que remonta a João Calvino. (shrink)

O objetivo deste artigo, que se insere no âmbito da filosofia da religião, é tratar o problema lógico do mal e mais concretamente a teoria da defesa do livre-arbítrio de Alvin Plantinga. Quero examinar se esta é uma teoria plausível e se resiste a algumas objeções. Pretendo defender que esta teoria parece resistir a certas objeções.

This book provides an overview of the institutional and intellectual development of sociology in Brazil from the early 1900s to the present day; through military coups, dictatorships and democracies. It charts the profound impact of sociology on Brazilian public life and how, in turn, upheavals in the history of the country and its universities affected its scientific agenda. This engaging account highlights the extent of the discipline’s colonial inheritance, its early institutionalization in São Paulo, and its congruent rise and fall (...) during repeated regime changes. The authors’ analysis draws on original research that maps the concentration of research interests, new developments, publications and centers of production in Brazilian sociology, using qualitative and quantitative data. It concludes with a reflection on the potential impact of the recent far-right turn in Brazilian politics on the future of the discipline. This book contributes a valuable country study to the history of sociology and will appeal to a range of social scientists in addition to scholars of disciplinary historiography, intellectual and Brazilian history. (shrink)

Propongo en este artículo una aproximación a la epistēmē socrática, poco explorada, que permite mostrar las insuficiencias que se generan si ésta se explica solamente desde un punto de vista cognitivo, y que muestra, a su vez, que la epistēmē socrática permite acoger aproximaciones diferentes a partir de las que tradicionalmente se ha establecido su sentido. La caracterización de la virtud que se propone es su consideración desde los estados determinados que genera su ejercicio, y que el agente posee.

Este artigo pretende investigar que tipo de escuta é a de quem “ouve vozes”. Tenta-‑se mostrar, com ele, os efeitos que a análise de certas alucinações auditivas e espectros sonoros teria, se fosse realizada do ponto de vista da escuta, não do conteúdo do que é ouvido. Para isso, o artigo conecta o estudo de certos “fantasmas auditivos” com a análise – no território da ficção, especificamente um romance de Robert Silverberg – da perda do poder de um telepata. Pretende-‑se, (...) assim, mostrar uma maneira possível de entender como o ouvinte se ouve a si mesmo como se fosse outro, ou, inversamente, como ouve outro como se não estivesse cercado pela exterioridade, mas permanecesse na parte mais interna do si mesmo. (shrink)

Our aim in this paper is to defend the reductionist (or deflationist) view on group testimony from the attacks of divergence arguments. We will begin by presenting how divergence arguments can challenge the reductionist view. However, we will argue that these arguments are not decisive to rule out the reductionist view; for, these arguments have false premises, assuming dubious epistemic principles that testimony cannot generate knowledge and understanding. The final part of this paper will be devoted to presenting the advantages (...) of the reductionist approach to explaining the phenomenon of group testimony. (shrink)

Our main question in this paper is as follow: (Q) What are the epistemic norms governing our responses in the face of disagreement? In order to answer it, we begin with some clarification. First, following McHugh (2012), if we employ a useful distinction in normativity theory between evaluative and prescriptive norms, there are two readings of (Q)––we explore such distinction in section 2. And secondly, we accept gnosticism, that is, the account that the fundamental epistemic good is knowledge. It is (...) with this assumption that we want to answer (Q). So, if gnosticism is true, what is the plausible answer to (Q)? In section 3 we argue for gnostic disagreement norms as response to (Q) and in section 4 we apply such norms to particular cases of disagreement. (shrink)

Este artículo se propone confrontar el concepto de opinión pública con la realidad y las expectativas de una sociedad digitalizada para analizar si la actual colonización algorítmica exige un nuevo cambio estructural de la opinión pública o más bien la retirada de este concepto. Los datos y metadatos masivos se han vuelto un arma de doble filo para la sociedad democrática digitalmente hiperconectada. Mientras que, por un lado, el increíble potencial que atesora el _big data_ y sus diferentes técnicas y (...) tecnologías de explotación de los datos y metadatos lo convierten en un producto codiciado por sistema de instituciones que componen tanto el estado como la sociedad civil; por otro, los altos impactos negativos que su uso instrumental e irresponsable está produciendo y puede llegar a producir, hacen del _big data_ una herramienta controvertida y altamente criticada por alejarnos de cualquier intento de construir una ciudadanía digital. Si bien la democracia algorítmica no se apoya solo en la opinión pública, el objetivo es mostrar la incompatibilidad entre opinión pública artificial y democracia. Nuestro hilo conductor es el concepto habermasiano de opinión pública, puesto que será precisamente la fuerza de la sociedad civil, a través del diseño en su seno de espacios de participación, de donde podemos extraer el potencial necesario para enfrentarnos a la actual colonización algorítmica, para recuperar una deliberación autónoma y crítica sin la cual no existe opinión pública alguna y, por tanto, tampoco democracia. (shrink)