The method of doubt has been used in philosophy and theology by both philosophers and theologians, among them al-Ghazālī. Al-Ghazālī’s method conveys the process of how he was cured of his epistemological and existential crisis. This study analyzes each phase of the process in terms of epistemology and logic; it explains the problems and how they appeared to al-Ghazālī.

This study employs bibliometric and thematic analysis to evaluate the growing body of research on subjective well-being and quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings underscore the pandemic’s profound impacts on global health, evidenced by a notable increase in studies addressing mental health and quality of life, fostered by international scientific collaboration. Keyword analysis reveals critical themes, including the pandemic’s influence on mental health, physical activity, and social support systems. This research provides valuable insights into the long-term consequences (...) of the pandemic and highlights adaptive strategies for managing future crises. By identifying key trends and research gaps, the study serves as an essential resource for academics, policymakers, and public health practitioners, offering a roadmap for future investigations. (shrink)

In the realm of human creation and characteristics, human beings possess various emotions and thoughts. The concept of the self (nafs) is one of these. Examining the levels of the self does not mean that the self carries multiple meanings. The levels of the self reflect the stages of a person's approach to God. This article explores the second level of the self, known as the self-reproaching self (nafs al-lawwama), and its place in human psychology. In the world of Sufism, (...) the concept of the self has a single meaning. However, considering the stages, it has been analyzed in seven levels (the commanding self, the self- reproaching self, the inspired self, the contented self, the pleasing self, the contented and pleased self, and the perfected self). These perspectives on the self in Sufism have also become a current research topic in the field of religious psychology. The concept of the self differs in meaning between Western and Islamic worlds. While Western scholars address the self in conjunction with some psychological concepts, in Islamic thought, the self is examined both in conjunction with psychological concepts and independently. The focus of this research is the self-reproaching self (nafs al-lawwama) and its approach in human psychology, based on scholars' opinions. Research Method: This study utilizes works, opinions, and theories related to this topic. The significance of the study lies in examining approaches to human psychology in the self-reproaching self (nafs al-lawwama), reviewing relevant research, and providing a source for future studies. The aim of the research is to understand how the psychological state of a person changes in the stage of the self- reproaching self and to review opinions and studies on this subject. (shrink)

Jerry Fodor’s causal theory of content is a well-known naturalistic attempt purporting to show that Brentano was wrong in supposing that physical states cannot possess meaning and reference. Fodor’s theory contains two crucial elements: one is a notion of “asymmetric dependence between nomic relations,” and the other is an assumption about the nature of the “causally operative properties” involved in the causation of mental tokens. Having dealt elsewhere with the problems Fodor’s notion of asymmetric dependence poses, we show in this (...) paper a difficulty with the other element of his theory concerning what kinds of properties are the causally operative ones in the tokenings of a semantic symbol in the brain of a perceiver. After presenting this difficulty, we examine three possible responses a Fodorian might make to our criticism. (shrink)

According to Fodor, robustness of meaning is an essential aspect of intentionality, and his causal theory of content can account for it. Robustness of meaning refers to the fact that tokenings of a symbol are occasionally caused by instantiations of properties which are not expressed by the symbol. This, according to Fodor, is the source of the phenomenon of misrepresentation. We claim that Fodor’s treatment of content and misrepresentation is infected with a couple of flaws. After criticizing Fodor’s theory of (...) content, we propose a new theory of content which explains how misrepresentation is possible as a result of meaning-forming causation, and extend it to account for the property of robustness of meaning. (shrink)

Our aim in this essay is to take a look at cartoons under philosophical light. What are some of the similarities between philosophy and the art of cartooning? In what ways can cartoons be helpful to philosophy? What are some of the problems cartoons pose for philosophy? Perhaps the most basic philosophical question concerning cartoons is, “What is a cartoon?”. We argue that it is not easy to pin down necessary and sufficient conditions for something being a cartoon. We defend (...) the view that cartoons form a class whose members are interconnected with the Wittgensteinian “family resemblance” relations. We then look into the problems involved in finding a connectionist parallel-processing correlate of the Wittgensteinian notion in the context of cartoons. (shrink)