Der Lehrstuhl für Christentumswissenschaft (Kirisutokyōgaku) an der Kaiserlichen Universität Kyoto wurde 1922 als Stiftungslehrstuhl gegründet. Die Gründung der Christentumswissenschaft in Kyoto erfolgte in einer spezifischen bildungspolitischen Konstellation: Es ging um die spannungsreichen Beziehung zwischen staatlichen Hochschulen und den Religionsgemeinschaften sowie um die Ansprüche einer dezidiert nationalen Politik. Der erste Inhaber des Lehrstuhls war einer der prominentesten japanischen Ideenhistoriker und Philosophen, Seiichi Hatano (1877–1950). Für Hatano gab es keinen Unterschied zwischen Theologie und Christentumswissenschaft. Er wandte die historische Methode auf die Forschung (...) zum frühen Christentum an, die er von deutschen Theologen gelernt hatte. Besonders stark hatte ihn die Religionsgeschichtliche Schule beeinflusst. Als Philosoph entwickelte Hatano eine Religionsphilosophie, die auf der Idee der Persönlichkeit basierte. Das starke Interesse am Thema “Persönlichkeit” hatte er auch mit den deutschen Theologen gemeinsam. Andererseits kritisierte Hatano den liberalen Protestantismus in Deutschland scharf. Dennoch wurde seine Haltung, mit der er die Vorgänger und Zeitgenossen “voraussetzungslos” kritisiert hatte, von führenden Vertretern des liberalen Protestantismus in Deutschland angenommen. (shrink)

Why are diagrams sometimes so useful, while other times unhelpful and even misguiding? There are systematic reasons for this. Drawing on modern research in logic, Artificial Intelligence, cognitive psychology, and graphic design, "Semantic Properties of Diagrams and their Cognitive Potentials" shows that diagrams' cognitive functions are rooted in the characteristic ways they carry information about their targets. The analysis leads to an answer for the deeper question of What makes a diagram a diagram?, which is of crucial importance to the (...) foundation of a collective science of diagrams. ". (shrink)

The aim of the present paper is to evaluate the role of a patient’s religious and non-religious beliefs in making decisions about medical care. Faith exerts a profound influence on our spiritual lives and on our daily actions, including ethical decisions. Religion determines the believer’s fundamental worldview, view of humanity, perspective on life and death, and values. In this paper, we investigated the treatment of medical decisions based on religious or non-religious beliefs. To understand this issue, it is necessary to (...) assess the uniqueness and validity of religious beliefs, as well as the rationality of beliefs. We concluded that decisions based on religious and non-religious beliefs shouldbe treated in the same way and that the distinguishing features of valid beliefs are deeply held and do not cause harm to others. In addition, we stated that the root beliefs we hold, whether religious or secular, cannot necessarily be explained logically, and that patient decisions should be judged by the logical consistency of their reasoning with their beliefs as starting points. (shrink)

This article offers a new interpretation of Plato’s method of collection and division as formulated in the Phaedrus, in light of a detailed examination of the surrounding context. It argues that Socrates carefully distinguishes the characteristic operations of the method from its applications. It shows that collection and division are to be construed independently of one another, and that the collection of F-ness is equivalent to the procedure for the definition of F-ness; and it clarifies three kinds of application that (...) are mentioned in the Phaedrus: simple definition, definition supplemented with division, and scientific analysis. (shrink)

朝鮮史上最も偉大な思想家とされる李退渓(イテゲェ)(1501-70)の知られざる素顔と数々の「謎」を解明する画期的研究。.

Der Aufsatz behandelt das Konzept der „Christentumswissenschaft“ (Kirisutokyo gaku) Tetsutarō Arigas, der der erste Dekan der Theologischen Fakultät an Doshisha Universität gewesen war und nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg auf den Lehrstuhl für Christentumswissenschaft an der Kyoto Universität berufen wurde. Ariga stammte aus einer „monotheistischen“ Familie mit einem muslimischen Vater und einer christlichen Mutter. Nachdem er an der Doshisha Universität graduierte, studierte er am Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York. Es ist zu vermuten, dass Ariga aufgrund seiner liberalen (...) demokratischen Gesinnung auf den Lehrstuhl an der Kyoto Universität berufen wurde. In der Einleitung in die Christentumswissenschaft unterschied Ariga zwischen der Christentumswissenschaft an der nationalen Universität und der Theologie an den privaten Universitäten. Ariga als Christentumswissenschaftler hat ohne die kirchlichen Autoritäten historisch-kritisch das Christentum erforscht, während er als Theologe sich mit pragmatischen Aufgaben, z. B. Ökumenismus, beschäftigt hat. Aus der Spannung zwischen der Christentumswissenschaft und der Theologie erzeugte er seine reichen wissenschaftlichen Leistungen. (shrink)

Humans have great locomotor adaptability to environmental demands, which has been investigated using a split-belt treadmill with belts on both the left and right sides. Thus far, neuromuscular control in split-belt locomotor adaptation has been evaluated by analyzing muscle activities at the individual muscle level. Meanwhile, in the motor control field, the muscle synergy concept has been proposed. Muscle synergies are considered the fundamental building blocks of movement and are groups of coactive muscles and time-varying activation patterns, thereby, reflecting the (...) neurophysiological characteristics of movement. To date, it remains unclear how such muscle synergies change during the adaptation and de-adaptation processes on the split-belt treadmill. Hence, we chronologically extracted muscle synergies while walking on the split-belt treadmill and examined changes in the number, muscle weightings, and temporal activation patterns of muscle synergies. Twelve healthy young males participated, and surface electromyography signals were recorded bilaterally from 13 lower-limb muscles. Muscle synergies were extracted by applying non-negative matrix factorization to the EMG data of each leg. We found that during split-belt walking, the number of synergies in the slow leg increased while an extra synergy appeared and disappeared in the fast leg. Additionally, the areas under the temporal activation patterns in several synergies in both legs decreased. When both belts returned to the same speed, a decrease in the number of synergies and an increase in the areas under the temporal activation patterns of several synergies were temporally shown in each leg. Subsequently, the number of synergies and the areas under the temporal activation patterns returned to those of normal walking before split-belt walking. Thus, changes in the number, muscle weightings, and temporal activation patterns of synergies were noted in the split-belt locomotor adaptation, suggesting that the adaptation and de-adaptation occurred at the muscle synergy level. (shrink)

この世界とは何か、を説明しようとする時、意識するとしないとにかかわらず、思い浮かべ、考えざるを得ない問いがある。それは、「人間とは何か」「国家とは何か」「国際関係とは何か」という3つの問いである。これ らの問いが織りなす「世界のできあがり方」の構造を、本書は「自我・国家・国際関係」と呼ぶ。現在も世界の人々を拘束し続ける、この認識論的機制の近代日本における形成過程を、明治末から昭和前半期に活躍した哲学 史家、朝永三十郎の「文脈設定者」としての思想的苦闘から描き出す。「国際関係とは何か」という、国際関係研究の根源への問いを問うには、世界国家の可能性を封じ込めた瞬間を把捉しなければならない。カントの『永 遠平和のために』の単なる解説書とされてきた朝永の『カントの平和論』における、「国際」と「国家」の矛盾、という議論に、その瞬間は埋蔵されていたのである。学問領域を横断し、理論と歴史、思想と実証を交錯させ て根源への問いへ挑み、21世紀の世界の見方、考え方を広く問いかける。.

Metadata helps users locate resources that meet their specific needs. But metadata also helps us to understand the data we find and helps us to evaluate what we should spend our time on. Traditionally, staff at libraries, archives, and museums (LAMs) create metadata for the content they manage. However, social metadata—content contributed by users—is evolving as a way to both augment and recontextualize the content and metadata created by LAMs. Many cultural heritage institutions are interested in gaining a better understanding (...) of social metadata and also learning how to best utilize their users' expertise to enrich their descriptive metadata and improve their users' experiences. (shrink)

What Does Only Assert and Entail? This paper investigates the semantics of English only and two equivalent expressions in Japanese -dake and -shika, giving attention to two aspects: the debate over the status of two propositions that are involved in the use of ONLY expressions and the semantic and pragmatic differences among ONLY items, if any. We claim that a sentence with ONLY expressions entails both the affirmative and negative propositions. This view raises issues with Horn's original claim as well (...) as van Rooij and Schulz's while supporting Atlas and Horn. We claim then that the difference in strength between the affirmative and negative propositions emerges from what is asserted by that sentence. One of the bases for our claim is that there is a significant difference in behavior between entailment and assertion of a given sentence, following Horn. This difference explains the difference between -dake on the one hand and -shika and -only on the other: -dake differs from only and -shika in that it asserts the affirmative proposition while -shika and only asserts the negative proposition. (shrink)

No laws or official guidelines govern medical assistance for dying in Japan. However, over the past several years, cases of assisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia, rarely disclosed until recently, have occurred in close succession. Inspired by these events, ethical, legal, and social debates on a patient’s right to die have arisen in Japan, as it has in many other countries. Several surveys of Japanese people’s attitudes towards voluntary assisted dying suggest that a certain number of Japanese prefer active euthanasia. Against (...) this background, it is important to discuss voluntary assisted dying cases in Japan and the Japanese views on them and to consider their implications. We review three recent Japanese voluntary assisted dying cases and discuss the various objections to voluntary assisted dying that have been published in response to these in various media outlets. Our counterarguments include the double suffering of people who are unable to give up their desire to die, individuality of death, variability of culture, problem of being an annoyance to (burden on) others, a slippery slope argument supporting voluntary assisted dying, and unfair claims about responsibility and excessive burden on people who are unable to give up their desire to die. We also point out the psychocultural and social problems in Japanese society that these objections reflect, and argue that voluntary assisted dying can be ethically acceptable under certain conditions. We conclude that Japanese society must change in order to enable those who sincerely wish to die to do so in a better way. (shrink)

In everyday medical settings in Japan, physicians occasionally tell an elderly patient that their symptoms are “due to old age,” and there is some concern that patient care might be negatively impacted as a result. That said, as this phrase can have multiple connotations and meanings, there are certain instances in which the use of this phrase may not necessarily be indicative of ageism, or prejudice against the elderly. One of the goals in medical care is to address pain and (...) suffering that develops with age in elderly individuals, and whether or not aging is a disease is inconsequential. However, assuming that an individualized and thorough examination has been performed, there are some conditions that can be attributed only to age. Accordingly, physicians must acknowledge the merits and drawbacks of using the phrase “due to old age,” and exercise caution when using it. Both physicians and their elderly patients must share a common awareness of the incomplete and limited nature of modern medicine and its scope, and physicians must help their elderly patients accept and live with the aging phenomenon. (shrink)

Destination therapy is the permanent implantation of a left ventricular assist device in patients with end-stage, severe heart failure who are ineligible for heart transplantation. DT improves both the quality of life and prognosis of patients with end-stage heart failure. However, there are also downsides to DT such as life-threatening complications and the potential for the patient to live beyond their desired length of life following such major complications. Because of deeply ingrained cultural and religious beliefs regarding death and the (...) sanctity of life, Japanese society may not be ready to make changes needed to enable patients to have LVADs deactivated under certain circumstances to avoid needless suffering. Western ethical views that permit LVAD deactivation based mainly on respect for autonomy and dignity have not been accepted thus far in Japan and are unlikely to be accepted, given the current Japanese culture and traditional values. Some healthcare professionals might regard patients as ineligible for DT unless they have prepared advance directives. If this were to happen, the right to prepare an advance directive would instead become an obligation to do so. Furthermore, patient selection for DT poses another ethical issue. Given the predominant sanctity of life principle and lack of cost-consciousness regarding medical expenses, medically appropriate exclusion criteria would be ignored and DT could be applied to various patients, including very old patients, the demented, or even patients in persistent vegetative states, through on-site judgment. There is an urgent need for Japan to establish and enact a basic act for patient rights. The act should include: respect for a patient’s right to self-determination; the right to refuse unwanted treatment; the right to prepare legally binding advance directives; the right to decline to prepare such directives; and access to nationally insured healthcare. It should enable those concerned with patient care involving DT to seek ethical advice from ethics committees. Furthermore, it should state that healthcare professionals involved in the discontinuation of life support in a proper manner are immune to any legal action and that they have the right to conscientiously object to LVAD deactivation. (shrink)

ABSTRACT In this brief article, we examine the document entitled Universal Draft Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, published by UNESCO in June 2005. We examine it in terms of its content and its appropriate role in global bioethics movements in the future. We make clear our view on the Declaration: the Declaration, despite a variety of serious problems, remains a valuable bioethical document and can contribute in substantial ways to the happiness of people throughout the world.

In the Japanese clinical setting, informed consent has not been well adopted although the idea is no longer novel and the bioethics movement is well known. There are several barriers to informed consent in Japan.It is possible that both patients and physicians do not know the idea or misunderstand it. Some may think that informed consent can be obtained from a patient who does not know his or her diagnosis or from family members of a competent patient. Because of no (...) history to develop informed consent, the ethical principle of patient self-determination can be lost in Japan. Paternalistic physicians and protective family members would counteract informed consent and try to make medical decisions to promote their patients' well being independent of their wishes and values. Dependent attitudes of some patients who never ask medical information and expect their physicians to consider all they need would make the idea of self-determination irrelevant in Japan. (shrink)

Each country may face some distinctive ethical problems. Little is known about what kind of ethical problems exist and how often physicians are faced with them in clinical settings in Japan. The authors conducted both retrospective and prospective studies to identify ethical dilemmas at a general medical ward of a university hospital in Japan. In the first phase of the study, retrospective chart reviews were conducted for 61 patients who had been admitted to our general medical ward. It revealed that (...) ethical dilemmas were recorded in 17 cases. In the subsequent period, as the second phase of the study, 6-month prospective case findings were conducted, showing that 22 of 47 patients had ethical dilemmas that attending physicians were concerned about. Ethical dilemmas frequently identified included refusal of or unnecessary requests for diagnostic procedures or treatment by patients, issues concerning truth-telling to patients with a serious illness, and disagreement regarding plans for patient care between patients' family and physicians in charge. The prospective case findings identified a significantly higher frequency of ethical dilemmas than did retrospective chart reviews . Demographics were not significantly different for the two patient groups. The data suggests that ethical dilemmas are not uncommon in general medical wards in Japan. The patients' family played a significant role in clinical decision making, leading on some occasions to complicated ethical dilemmas. (shrink)

Novel functions, which emerge by reusing existing resources formerly adapted to other original usages, cannot be anticipated before the need eventually arises. Simple reuse must be accidental. However, to survive the evolutionary race, one cannot merely keep hoping for a string of good fortune. So, successful species might be gifted with and biological mechanisms to prepare for future reuse. Neural reuse must be extrapolated from such mechanisms.

The objective of this study was to reveal the problems related to interpersonal relationships which patients with obstinate diseases face, and consider the behavior, attitude and medical intervention that healthcare and healthcare-related professions should take in regards to these problems. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with patients with obstinate neurological diseases and observation of outpatient care was also conducted. Data were analyzed by qualitative content analysis. Patient diseases included Parkinson Disease , Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis , myasthenia gravis, spinocerebellar ataxia , (...) and progressive supranuclear palsy . Findings highlighted that patients’ disease and suffering was not understood fully by patients’ families, that patients feel a lack of family support and cooperation, and that society’s level of understanding of their disease was also insufficient. Again, findings revealed that patients recognized their inability to perform personal activities and to behave competently within the contexts of family and society. This lowered their self evaluation. These findings highlight three needs: “the need for empathy,” “the need for self the “the need for empathy” and “the need for self esteem.”This study was supported by a great-in-aid by Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in Japan, “Outcomes Research of Specific Diseases”（PI:S.Fukuhara）（Grand no: H14-44）. (shrink)

Patients and physicians have confronted many ethical dilemmas in Japan and more complete medical ethics education should be developed to cope with them. We have to be cautious, however, when adopting ethical guidelines and decision-making priorities utilized in Western countries and expert ethicists' opinions without critical deliberation. Accepting them as absolute norms would fail to resolve ethical problems deeply rooted in the idiosyncratic Japanese human relationship and value system. Traditional ethical attitudes in Japan should be also criticized because they have (...) apparently failed to deal with present ethically difficult situations.We have to, therefore, start our consideration regarding appropriate medical ethics education by asking the following questions: What is an ethical problem in Japan, what kind of decision-making process should be used, and what is ethically right in this country? We would obtain valid answers only through recognition of present situation in this regard. (shrink)

BackgroundInstances of surrogate decision-making are expected to increase with the rise in hospitalised older adults in Japan. Few large-scale studies have comprehensively examined the entire surrogate decision-making process. This study aimed to gather information to assess the current state of surrogate decision-making in Japan.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted using online questionnaires. A total of 1000 surrogate decision-makers responded to the questionnaire. We examined the characteristics of surrogate decision-makers and patients, content of surrogate decision-making meeting regarding life-sustaining treatment between the doctors (...) and surrogate decision-makers, extent of involvement of the various parties in the surrogate decision-making process, judgement grounds for surrogate decision-making, and frequency of involvement in the surrogate decision-making process.ResultsOf the participants, 70.5% were male and 48.3% were eldest sons. Only 7.6% of the patients had left a written record of their preferences and 48.8% of the surrogates reported no knowledge of the patient having expressed their prior intentions regarding medical care in any form. Respondents indicated that their family meetings with healthcare professionals mostly included the information recommended by guidelines in a surrogate decision-making meeting in Japan. Most participants reported a good understanding of the meeting content. Although many participants based their decisions on multiple grounds, surrogates’ considerations may not adequately reflect respect for patient autonomy in Japan. Specifically, the eldest son considered his own preference more frequently than that of the other surrogate decision-makers. In 26.1% of the cases, either zero or one family meeting with healthcare professionals was held. In these cases, significantly fewer decisions involved the participation of healthcare professionals other than the doctor compared to cases with multiple meetings.ConclusionsSurrogate decisions in Japan are most commonly made by eldest sons and may not frequently consider the perspectives of other surrogates. The finding that patient preferences were rarely known suggests a role for increased advance care planning. (shrink)