Abstract

This study reinterprets the core concept of bao 報 (reciprocity or recompense) within the Confucian tradition through the lens of yili zhi bian 義利之辨 (debate of righteousness and profit). It examines the relevant discourses of Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi, Zhou Dunyi, Zhu Xi, and Wang Yangming. By analyzing these discussions, the paper elucidates the transformations in the meaning of bao embedded in the moral principles and views on righteousness in Confucian thought. Furthermore, it systematizes the notion of “virtue” (dexing 德性) into three categories: great virtue (dadexing 大德性), non-virtue (feidexing 非德性), and theological virtue (chaodexing 超德性), thereby uncovering the multidimensional implications of bao. Confucius and Mencius emphasized the primacy of moral principles, advocating for the pursuit of legitimate profit (li 利) grounded in righteousness (yi 義). They further concretized the ethical significance of bao by asserting that “requite kindness with kindness; requite resentment with justice.” Xunzi, on the other hand, stressed the regulation of human nature through ritual propriety and postnatal education, proposing that profit should be harmoniously controlled through righteousness. The Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties advanced the yili zhi bian to a metaphysical level. In particular, Wang Yangming sought to reconcile righteousness and profit by grounding them in inner conscience and virtue through his doctrine of the “unity of knowledge and action” (zhixing heyi 知行合一). Consequently, the concept of bao evolved beyond mere reciprocity or transactional exchange, emerging as a principle of moral cultivation and ethical practice. This reinterpretation offers a foundation for moral reasoning in the face of contemporary ethical uncertainties, providing a basis for strengthening the moral fabric of modern society while fostering individual moral self-cultivation.