Este artículo examina la manera en que el diseño específico de las casas de baños de la Antigüedad tardía en la provincia romana de la Cirenaica, base de operaciones para la conquista islámica de Ifrīqiya, influyó en el desarrollo de los hammams en el norte de África y en al-Andalus. Los restos arqueológicos de los baños bizantinos/tardoantiguos y los primeros hammams son puestos en comparación para demostrar las grandes similitudes de su trazado general y dentro de este, del diseño del (...) caldarium en particular, lo que apunta a la pervivencia de los esquemas de construcción que sobreviven hasta el día de hoy en los hammams marroquíes. La característica más distintiva era la estancia rectangular para el baño de calor, calentada por un solo horno, y flanqueada por dos exedras que albergaban sendas bañeras rectangulares. Este diseño de hammam «occidental» era marcadamente distinto de los hammams contemporáneos en Oriente, que a su vez continuaron con el diseño tradicional de los baños públicos romano-bizantinos orientales. Contrariamente a lo que se presuponía, este artículo demuestra que el diseño «occidental» no se originó en los primeros momentos del Marruecos medieval y de al-Andalus, extendiéndose posteriormente hacia el Mediterráneo oriental, sino que se originó en el norte del África romano-bizantino, extendiéndose hacia el Oeste, para regresar, a través de la circularidad cultural, al lugar de origen con nuevas adaptaciones. (shrink)

Background Over the past few decades, moral distress has been examined in the nursing literature. It is thought to occur when an individual has made a moral decision but is unable to act on it, often attributable to constraints, internal or external. Varying definitions can be found throughout the healthcare literature. This lack of cohesion has led to complications for study of the phenomenon, along with its effects to nursing practice, education and targeted policy development. Objectives The aim of this (...) analysis was to uncover unique definitions of moral distress as found in the nursing literature and to examine the relationship between these definitions. Research Design and Context Morse’s method of concept clarification was applied given the large body of literature which includes definitions, descriptions and measurements of the concept in research. The steps include (a) conducting a literature review; (b) analysing the literature; and (c) identifying, describing, comparing, and contrasting attributes, antecedents and consequences of each category. Findings Each of the 18 included studies described constraints in their definition of moral distress, whether implied or explicitly stated. External constraints are widely described as obstacles outside of the individual, whether institutional, systemic or situational, while internal constraints are located within the individuals themselves and are described as personal limitations, failings or weakness of will. Conclusion Upon reviewing these definitions, we determined that the term ‘internal constraints’ is problematic due to the emphasis of responsibility on the individual experiencing moral distress. We propose an alteration to ‘internal characteristics’ that will assume less responsibility of change from the individual to place a heavier onus on systemic and institutional constraints. (shrink)

In pediatric critical care, nurses are the primary caregivers for critically ill children and are particularly vulnerable to moral distress. There is limited evidence on what approaches are effective to minimize moral distress among these nurses. To identify intervention attributes that critical care nurses with moral distress histories deem important to develop a moral distress intervention. We used a qualitative description approach. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling between October 2020 to May 2021 from pediatric critical care units in a (...) western Canadian province. We conducted individual semi-structured interviews via Zoom. A total of 10 registered nurses participated in the study. Four main themes were identified: (1) “I’m sorry, there’s nothing else”: increasing supports for patients and families; (2) “someone will commit suicide”: improving supports for nurses: (3) “Everyone needs to be heard”: improving patient care communication; and (4) “I didn’t see it coming”: providing education to mitigate moral distress. Most participants stated they wanted an intervention to improve communication among the healthcare team and noted changes to unit practices that could decrease moral distress. This is the first study that asks nurses what is needed to minimize their moral distress. Although there are multiple strategies in place to help nurses with difficult aspects of their work, additional strategies are needed to help nurses experiencing moral distress. Moving the research focus from identifying moral distress towards developing effective interventions is needed. Identifying what nurses need is critical to develop effective moral distress interventions. (shrink)

Nurses may, and often do, experience moral distress in their careers. This is related to the complicated work environment and the complex nature of ethical situations in everyday nursing practice. The outcomes of moral distress may include psychological and physical symptoms, reduced job satisfaction and even inadequate or inappropriate nursing care. Moral distress can also impact retention of nurses. Although research has grown considerably over the past few decades, there is still a great deal about this topic that we do (...) not know including how to deal well with moral distress. A critical key step is to develop a deeper understanding of relational practice as it pertains to moral distress. In this article, exploration of the experience of moral distress among nurses is guided by the key elements of relational ethics. This ethical approach was chosen because it recognizes that ethical practice is situated in relationships and it acknowledges the importance of the broader environment on influencing ethical action. The findings from this theoretical exploration will provide a theoretical foundation upon which to advance our knowledge about moral distress. (shrink)

Although it has been claimed that the Kharijite understanding emerged as a result of a booty division in the Prophet's time, their emergence as a sect was in the Battle of Siffin. This formation, which gained fame with the motto "The Judgment belongs only to Allah" in the arbitration issue between Hazrat Ali and Muawiya, came to the fore enough to leave Muaviye's rebellion against Hazrat Ali behind. So much so that when the battle of Siffin is mentioned, researchers focus (...) on Muawiya and Kharijites and what they did rather than what he did. Although there are many reasons for this, the most important one is the evaluation of Kharijites and Kharijites within the framework of Sunni sources. We can say that the way to be objective about Kharijites and Kharijites is to refer to the sources of the Kharijites themselves or the sects associated with the Kharijites. Kharijites are not a formation that systematizes as a creed or fiqh sect. However, The Ibâzî sect is known as a Khariji sect, as the pioneers of the sect, which would later be known as Ibâzî, were among the group that left Ali and gathered in a place called Harûra. In the year 64 Hijri, the people of Harura were divided into sects among themselves. The reason for this separation is especially because Nafi' b. Ezrak sees violence as legitimate and rejects other Muslims who do not think like them, and considers their blood, property and chastity halal. After this separation, the Kharijites were referred to as Ezârikâ, Süfriyya, Necdiyye/Necedât and Ibâzis. The Ibazis specifically stated that they were away from these sects because of their radical attitudes. This situation was especially emphasized in the correspondence between Abdullah b. İbâz and the Umayyad caliph Abdulmalik b. Marwan. However, when dealing with the subject of Kharijite, the reason for this disintegration was ignored, and the Ibazis, who had a moderate understanding, were evaluated in the same category as other Kharijite sects that were pro-violence and takfir. Ibazis strongly opposed such a generalization and argued that they should be evaluated separately from other Kharijite sects. In our study, this attitude of the Ibâzîs and their justifications have been included, and it has been tried to be explained with reference to both their own sources and Sunni sources. Another important point is that the Ibazis do not want to be called Kharijites. They considered it more appropriate to be named as Shurat, Ehlu'l-Istaqama, Haruriye and Vehbiye. The Ibâzî sect, which has managed to survive to the present day, has original views on Kharijites and Kharijites, and they also expressed an opinion on whether they see themselves as Kharijites or not. In addition, their approaches to and definitions of Kharijite differ from those mentioned in Sunni sources. Because of these connections with the Kharijites and the fact that they have reached the present day, it is a necessity to refer to the Ibâzî sources on the subject of Khârijism in terms of objectivity. However, we can say that Ibâzîs were introduced by adhering to Sunni sources. Such an approach, on the other hand, would not only cause the Ibazis to be understood correctly, but also caused them to be identified with the other Kharijite sects, especially the Ezarika. In this study, we will try to deal with the approaches of the Ibazis to the subject of Kharijite and Kharijite and whether they see themselves as a Kharijite sect, based on their own sources. (shrink)

Ludwik Fleck says that a thought-collective develops a thought-style which shapes the ways of perceiving the world and thinking of the world by its members. So how could it happen that at the end of 1900 Max Planck, whose thinking was determined by classical mechanics, managed to think that energy is quantized - the idea that contradicted the principles of Newton's mechanics? My answer is that Planck did not intend to think it.

Ansiklopedik tarzda kaleme alınan eserler, yazıldıkları dönemindeki ilmi seviyeyi göstermek ve muhataplarının ihtiyaç duydukları pratik bilgileri bir araya getirmek bakımından büyük öneme sahiptir. Zira bu tür eserlerin, hem müellifin çeşitli ilim dallarına vukufiyetini ortaya koyma hem de eserden istifade edecek kesimlerin ihtiyaç duyduğu bilgi birikimini tespit etme noktasında kıymetli veri kaynakları oldukları aşikârdır. İslam dünyasında erken dönemde kaleme alınan bu türdeki eserlerden biri de müellifin tek eseri olarak günümüze gelmiş ve şöhreti ile müellifini geride bırakmış olan Muhammed b. Ahmed el-Hârizmî’nin (...) Mefâtîhu’l-‘ulûm aslı eseridir. Bu çalışmada Hârizmî’nin bir bürokrat olarak kendi meslektaşlarının ihtiyaç duyduğu bilgileri bir araya getirdiği eserinde felsefeye ve felsefî ilimlere yaklaşımı incelenecektir. Çalışmanın planı, müellifin eserinde felsefeye ayırdığı bölüme başlıkları üzerinden düzenlenmiştir. (shrink)

This paper argues that Book 3 of Porphyry’s De abstinentia contains an overlooked argument in favor of vegetarianism for the sake of non-human animals themselves. The argument runs as follows: animals are essentially sentient creatures. Sentience (αἴσθησις) allows them to discern what is good for their survival and what is destructive to them, so that they can pursue the former and avoid the latter. As a result, animals (human and non-human) have preferences, desires, and hopes. Having purposeful strivings that can (...) be promoted or frustrated makes them recipients of justice and injustice. This means, for Porphyry, that animals, unlike plants, can be wronged since they are creatures that discern, and purposefully pursue, what is good or bad for them. This reading stands against interpretations that argue that Porphyry advocates vegetarianism only for our benefit, and not for the animals’ own sake. (shrink)

In the Philebus, Socrates argues that pleasures can be false in the same way that beliefs can be false. On the basis of Socrates' analysis of malicious pleasure, a mixed pleasure of the soul and a passion, I defend the view that, according to Socrates, pleasures can be false when they represent as pleasant something that is not worthy of our enjoyment, where that means that they represent as pleasant something that is not pleasant in its own right because it (...) is not fine. Since these pleasures misrepresent the value of their objects, they involve an evaluative error. In contrast, a pleasure is true when it correctly represents the actual value of things. (shrink)

This paper argues that Aristotelian practical wisdom (phronêsis) is a state of conviction (pistis) in the goodness of our goals based on proper grounds. This state of conviction can only be achieved if rational arguments and principles agree with how things appear to us. Since, for Aristotle, passions influence appearances, they can support or undermine our conviction in the goodness of ends that are worth pursuing. For this reason, we cannot be practically wise without virtuous dispositions to experience appropriate passions. (...) Along the way, I argue that this reading allows us to explain the shortcomings of self-controlled and akratic agents. -/- . (shrink)

Artykuł dotyczy problemu percepcji. Przedstawiam w nim koncpecję"widzenia jako" Wittgensteina, oraz koncepcje myślenia jako odruchu Bohma. Wskazując podobieństwa i różnice w poglądach Wittgensteina i Bohma zmierzać będę do postawienia pytania o to, co sprawia, że nasze postrzeganie jest uwarunkowane. Po dokonaniu oceny tego faktu, w dalszej kolejności postawię pytanie o możliwość percepcji nieuwarunkowanej. Tym samym spróbuję odpowiedzieć na dwa pytania: czy istnieją powody, dla których powinniśmy wyzwalać się z tego rodzaju percepcji, a także czy i jak jest to w ogóle (...) możliwe? (shrink)

This article is an attempt to determine the status of transcendence within the works of Hannah Arendt. This topic belongs to a niche when it comes to the scope of interests of the thinker whose interests focused upon the philosophy of politics. However, since Arendt concentrated on the reflection on man and his culture, her ideas reach beyond socio-political issues. Drawing a picture of the world as a place created by people, and distinguishing it from the world of nature, she (...) draws indirect attention to what goes beyond it. In Arendt’s writings, the sphere of transcendence appears as what does not appear, yet it does exist and affects our existence in an even more noticeable way than the actions of politicians. For this reason, I attempt to determine not only the ontological status of transcendence, but also the status of a thinker who appears in Arendt’s writings as a mind. These tasks will require reconstructing the sphere of what does not appear, and the way it is connected with the sphere of phenomena. This will be done on the basis of an analysis of the activities that a person performs, and individual spheres in which her life takes place. (shrink)

Moral distress is a common phenomenon among nurses and is related to the complicated work environments and complex nature of ethical situations in day-to-day nursing practice. Moral distress impacts nurses as well as patient care and the health care system. Few strategies have been identified for instructors to effectively engage with learners when communicating about moral distress. We discuss two key curricular and pedagogical strategies that should be utilized when learning about moral distress: difficult knowledge’ and ‘terror management theory’. Whether (...) it is with new nursing students or experienced nurses, there is necessary learning that needs to occur on moral distress. Difficult knowledge’ and ‘terror management theory’, when implemented, can provide a starting point for both the learner and the instructor to discuss the emotionally difficult and complex topic of moral distress. Knowledge about moral distress has the potential to mitigate its negative effects, therefore it is vital to consider educational strategies to teach nurses about this complex phenomenon. (shrink)

The current study explored the extent to which children above and below the age of 7 years are able to benefit from either training in cumulative rehearsal or in the use of interactive imagery when carrying out working memory tasks. Twenty-four 5- to 6-year-olds and 24 8- to 9-year olds were each assigned to one of three training groups who either received cumulative rehearsal, interactive imagery, or passive labelling training. Participants’ ability to maintain material during a filled delay was then (...) assessed, and the nature of the distraction that was imposed during this delay was varied to shed further light on the mechanisms that individuals used to maintain the memoranda in working memory in the face of this distraction. The results suggest that the rehearsal training employed here did improve recall by virtue of encouraging rehearsal strategies, in a way that was not observed among participants receiving interactive imagery training. The fact that these effects were not mediated by age group counts against the view that younger individuals are either unable to rehearse, or show impoverished verbal serial recall because they do not spontaneously engage in rehearsal. (shrink)

In this paper, I provide an interpretation of Plato’s repeated claims in Republic V that women are “weaker” (asthenestera) than men. Specifically, I argue that Plato thinks women have a psychological propensity to get easily dispirited, which makes them less effective in implementing and executing their rational decisions. This interpretation achieves several things. It qualifies Plato’s position regarding women and their position in the polis. It provides the background against which we can interpret Aristotle’s claim in Politics I that women (...) possess a deliberative capacity that is not authoritative (akuron). It expands our understanding of the nature and role of spirit (thumos) in these authors. And, finally, it gives us insight into a kind of moral-psychological success that Plato and Aristotle consider central to both personal and political agency. (shrink)

What are the passions? And what, if anything, do they have to do with our intellectual lives? I argue that, according to Aristotle, the passions are complex states that carry information about the value things have. More specifically, Aristotelian passions are constituted by fine-grained evaluative appearances—a kind of truth-apt, cognitive, yet non-rational representation that non-human animals also entertain. Given that the passions are representations of value, they can be the basis for coming to know and understand the peculiar value of (...) things. So, the passions can serve as grounds for intellectual achievements that are essential to a good life. In particular, I argue that, for Aristotle, the passions contribute substantively to three intellectual achievements that are required for a flourishing life: practical wisdom, certain instances of contemplation, and the appreciation of art. Since Aristotelian passions carry rich information and discriminate value, they are cognitive states that can shape and enrich not only our lives as agents, but also our lives as knowers. The passions can play an epistemic role by serving as warrant for intellectually discerning the normative features of the situations we inhabit, the kinds of characters that surround us, and what is good and fine in them and us. Furthermore, in virtue of their epistemic role, the passions can be the basis for the intellectual aspects of a moral education. (shrink)

I agree with many of Adam Grobler’s theses, but several others raised my objection. (1) A.G. does not want to call scientific claims true. It is not so: very much of what scientists say about the world is true (in the classic sense), and scientists know it is. (2) A.G. leads us astray when he writes that the acceptance or rejection of hypotheses is determined, at least sometimes, by expert votes. It is not so: further research is the decisive factor (...) in accepting or rejecting hypotheses in science. (3) While A.G. is aware of some social determinants of knowledge, he ultimately states: “individuals are the subjects of scientific knowledge.” Contrary to this, I argue that one can only be a scientist as a member of a scientific thought collective. (4) A.G. believes that scientific knowledge is based on presuppositions, accepted unconsciously, that give meaning to statements made openly. After Wittgenstein, I repeat: “After all, nothing is concealed.”. (shrink)

In Nicomachean Ethics 7.7 (= Eudemian Ethics 6.7), Aristotle distinguishes softness (malakia) from lack of self-control (akrasia) and endurance (karteria) from self-control (enkrateia). This paper argues that unqualified softness consists of a disposition to give up acting to avoid the painful toil (ponos) required to execute practical resolutions, and (coincidentally) to enjoy the pleasures of rest and relaxation. The enduring person, in contrast, persists in her commitments despite the painful effort required to enact them. Along the way, I argue that (...) this interpretation qualifies our understanding of the pleasures and pains with which temperance and intemperance are concerned. (shrink)

In this paper I examine the moral psychology of the Phaedo and argue that the philosophical life in this dialogue is a temperate life, and that temperance consists in exercising epistemic discernment by actively withdrawing assent from incorrect evaluations the body inclines us to make. Philosophers deal with bodily affections by taking a correct epistemic stance. Exercising temperance thus understood is a necessary condition both for developing and strengthening rational capacities, and for fixing accurate beliefs about value. The purification philosophers (...) strive for, and the purifying role of philosophy, should then be understood as a clarificatory act consisting in making one’s thoughts clear and withdrawing assent from erroneous evaluative content in our desires and pleasures. Along the way, I argue that philosophers must neither avoid situations and activities that cause bodily affections as much as possible, nor ignore or care little about them. (shrink)

The global pandemic has intensified the risk of moral distress due to increased demands on already limited human resources and uncertainty of the pandemic’s trajectory. Nurses commonly experience moral distress: a conflict between the morally correct action and what they are required or capable of doing. Effective moral distress interventions are rare. For this reason, our team conducted a multi-phase research study to develop a moral distress intervention for pediatric critical care nurses. In this article, we discuss our multi-phase approach (...) to develop a moral distress intervention—proactive, interdisciplinary meeting. Our proposed intervention is a sequential compilation of empirical work couched within a relational ethics lens thus should point to enhanced potential for intervention effectiveness. (shrink)

The topic of the article is the way in which a human being can grasp its own body. The confrontation between Husserl's and Sartre's philosophy about meeting Another is my way of showing the radical change in our understanding of the problem of how we know our own body. According to Husserl both our psyche and body are given to us immediately. The body of Another is given to us by means of our own body. The psyche of Another is (...) made present through his body. This conception is inverted by Sartre. Both the psyche and the body are no longer able to grasp themselves. Yet this does not mean that Another is ungraspable. Knowledge of him does not require self-knowledge. The psyche of Another is given through his body, which is given immediately. Our own body needs the body of Another - it is contained in everything that is not itself. (shrink)

The first half of the 20th century witnessed the development of the classic eugenics. Some countries in Europe and the USA of different historical past, cultures and degree of development were universally attracted by the eugenic ideology. This raises few questions concerning the basis of its universal attractiveness for masses and its success. This article answers those questions indicating strong religious-like belief in the myth which served as a base for the eugenical way of thinking being older than this thought. (...) This myth narrates a story about the existence of “real people” who lived in the past, yet unfavourable circumstances caused their degradation, but who—with the assistance of physicians technocrats of the new society and through medical procedures—may be reborn. This paper aims at the reconstruction of the myth on the basis of the writings of Plato, Campanella and Nietzsche. As examples of its “realization” of the myth, I provide the activities of the institutions like Lebensborn houses in Germany and Nobel Sperm Bank in the USA. (shrink)

In On my own opinions, Galen claims to agree with Aristotle that the soul is the form of the body. But should we take this statement at face value? After all, Galen says that the substance of the soul is a bodily mixture, and that the soul is the form of the body in the sense that it is the principle of mixing of the elementary qualities (i.e., hot, cold, wet, and dry). As is well known, Aristotle explicitly rejects this (...) sort of materialist account of the soul. In De Anima, he tells us that the soul cannot be a harmonia of bodily elements, understood either as the proportion according to which the elements are mixed, or as the mixtures themselves (I.4, 407b32-408a2). In this chapter, I argue that Galen rejects a substantive version of hylomorphism, in favor of a view according to which the soul’s substance is nothing other than a bodily mixture. Galen’s position contains a veiled objection to some central Aristotelian views and reveals a general suspicion regarding the Aristotelian notion of form as a genuine metaphysical and explanatory category. (shrink)

The advent in universities of managerialism with its drive for individual accountability through performance management systems is contentious. With the implementation of a PMS at a South African university, academic heads of department have been key players in the performance reward component of the PMS. This study, following a qualitative descriptive research design based on in-depth interviews, explores a sample of HoDs’ experiences and perceptions of the institution's performance reward system. Most of the participants are sceptical of the PMS as (...) they view it as a business-oriented practice that is not compatible with the nature and objectives of higher education institutions. They consider the reward strategy not only to have a limited effect in promoting high performance behaviour, but to be a cause of discontent due to implementation inconsistencies, nebulous award criteria, lack of transparency about ratings, and the negligible monetary value of the reward. (shrink)

This paper argues that Aristotelian thumos is a non-reducible mental phenomenon that plays a central role in Aristotle’s theory of the mind, motivation, and action. For Aristotle, thumos is not primarily, as others have argued, a desire for the noble, social appraisal, or retaliation; rather, it is an inner drive or impulse to act. More precisely, it is an executory urge to implement or enact one’s ends or goals, whatever they are. Thumos accounts for someone’s proneness to spring into action (...) and can contribute to bringing about rational or non-rational, first-order desires. It is a second-order motivation, which both human and non-human animals have and that comes in degrees: we can be more or less thumotic, which amounts to being more or less disposed to making first-order desires effective so that they issue in actions. Aristotelian thumos, then, anticipates features of the modern notion of the will. Along the way, I argue that thumos is key to Aristotle’s efforts to differentiate and hierarchically organize species, characters, genders, and peoples. (shrink)