Moral behaviour, based on social norms, is commonly regarded as a hallmark of humans. Hitherto, humans are perceived to be the only species possessing social norms and to engage in moral behaviour. There is anecdotal evidence suggesting their presence in chimpanzees, but systematic studies are lacking. Here, we examine the evolution of human social norms and their underlying psychological mechanisms. For this, we distinguish between conventions, cultural social norms and universal social norms. We aim at exploring whether chimpanzees possess evolutionary (...) precursors of universal social norms seen in humans. Chimpanzees exhibit important preconditions for their presence and enforcement: tolerant societies, well-developed social-cognitive skills and empathetic competence. Here, we develop a theoretical framework for recognizing different functional levels of social norms and distinguish them from mere statistical behavioural regularities. Quasi social norms are found where animals behave functionally moral without having moral emotions. In proto social norms, moral emotions might be present but cannot be collectivized due to the absence of a uniquely human psychological trait, i.e. shared intentionality. Human social norms, whether they are universal or cultural, involve moral emotions and are collectivized. We will discuss behaviours in chimpanzees that represent potential evolutionary precursors of human universal social norms, with special focus on social interactions involving infants. We argue that chimpanzee infants occupy a special status within their communities and propose that tolerance towards them might represent a proto social norm. Finally, we discuss possible ways to test this theoretical framework. (shrink)

These essays bring Neo-Kantianism back into contemporary philosophical discourse.

Im ersten Teil des Anhangs zur Transzendentalen Dialektik entwickelt Kant einen Übergang zwischen dem logischen Gebrauch der Vernunft und den transzendentalen Prinzipien der Vernunft. Basierend auf methodologischen Überlegungen zur Chemie, zur physiologischen Anthropologie und zur Entwicklungsgeschichte astronomischer Grundannahmen versucht Kant, diese Prinzipien in ihrem transzendentalen Status zu rechtfertigen und ihre Kompatibilität mit anderen Teilen der Kritik der reinen Vernunft nachzuweisen. Ausgehend von diesen wissenschaftstheoretischen Beispielen wird für eine heuristisch- pragmatische Rechtfertigung der transzendentalen Prinzipien der Vernunft und eine ideelle Funktion der (...) durch diese Prinzipien gewonnenen Ideen argumentiert. Dabei lässt sich die enge Verbindung zwischen den transzendentalen Prinzipien des ersten Teils des Anhangs zur Transzendentalen Dialektik und Kants Konzept der rationalen Naturwissenschaft in den Metaphysischen Anfangsgründen der Naturwissenschaft nachweisen. (shrink)

A portrait of scholastic approaches to a qualified disagreement of opinions, focusing on the antagonism of scholastic probabilism and anti-probabilism in the early modern era.

The question of what ontological insights can be gained from the knowledge of physics (keyword: ontic structural realism) cannot obviously be separated from the view of physics as a science from an epistemological perspective. This is also visible in the debate about 'scientific realism'. This debate makes it evident, in the form of the importance of perception as a criterion for the assertion of existence in relation to the 'theoretical entities' of physics, that epistemology itself is 'ontologically laden'. This is (...) in the form of the assumption that things (or entities) in themselves exist as such and such determined ones (independent of cognition, autonomously). This ontological assumption is not only the basis of our naïve understanding of cognition, but also its indispensable premise, insofar as this understanding is a fundamentally passive, 'receptive' one. Accordingly, just as 'perception' is the foundation, ('objective') description is the aim of cognition, that which cognition is about. In this sense, our idea of cognition and our idea of the things are inseparably linked. Without the ontological premise mentioned we just would not know what cognition is, but it is basically just a kind of image that we have in our minds (an assumption that helps us understand 'cognition'). Epistemology not only shares this basic assumption (which it also shares with metaphysics), but it revolves (unlike metaphysics) entirely around it by making the idea and demand of 'certainty' a condition of 'real' knowledge. As 'certainty' is a subjective criterion this entails the 'remodelling' of the real, holistic cognitive situation (to which metaphysics adheres) into a linear subject-object-relation (which results in the strict 'transcendence' of the objects). And it also establishes, due to its 'expertise' in matters of cognition, the 'primacy of epistemology' over all other sciences. Now, on closer inspection, however, the expertise of epistemology seems not all that dependable, because it basically consists only of paradigms which, from the point of view of the holism of the real cognitive situation itself, are nothing more than relatively simplistic interpretations of this situation. However, we do not yet know what another conception of cognition might look like (which is not surprising given the high rank of the phenomenon of cognition in the hierarchy of phenomena according to their complexity). 'Certainty' as a criterion of cognition is thus excluded from the outset, and thus the linear relational model of cognition appears as what it is, a gross distortion of the real, holistic cognitive situation. The significance of this argumentation with regard to physics is that the linear epistemological model of cognition itself is a major obstacle to an adequate epistemological understanding of physics. This is because it is fixed 'a priori' to an object-related concept of cognition, and to 'description' as the only mode of ('real') cognition. But physics (without questioning our naïve notion of cognition on the level of epistemology) simply works past it and its basic assumptions. Its cognitive concept (alias heuristic) is fundamentally different from that of metaphysics. The acceptance of the real, holistic cognitive situation is, in my opinion, the condition for an adequate understanding of physics' heuristic access to objects, its transcendental, generalizing cognitive concept, as well as its ontological relevance and dimension of its own. (shrink)

The question of what ontological insights can be gained from the knowledge of physics (keyword: ontic structural realism) cannot obviously be completely separated from the view of physics as a science from an epistemological perspective. This is also visible in the debate about 'scientific realism'. This debate makes it clear, in the form of the importance of perception as a criterion for the assertion of existence in relation to the 'theoretical entities' of physics, that epistemology itself is 'ontologically loaded'. This (...) is in the form of the assumption that things in themselves (independent of cognition, in an autonomous way) exist as so-and-so determined ones. This ontological assumption is not only the basis of our (naive) conception of knowledge, but also its indispensable premise, insofar as this conception is a fundamentally passive, 'receptive' one. This is true to the full extent of metaphysics, and to a not much lesser extent of epistemology. The interpretation of knowledge in the sense of 'description' seems to be without alternative. In the philosophy of science, this view is reflected in the emphasis on 'objectivity' as the essence of science, in the belief in 'induction' as the traditional method of science, and (ex negativo) in the problem of the 'theory laden nature of observation'. To these paradigms of epistemology, however, a further aggravating factor is added, namely the criterion of 'subjective certainty' as evidence of 'real' knowledge (only meaningful on the basis of the ontological premise mentioned above). Thus, due to its 'expertise' in matters of knowledge, epistemology becomes the 'prima philosophia'. But what is even more important, the real, holistic cognitive situation is transformed into a linear cognitive relationship, with the consequence of the 'transcendence' of the objects. Now, on closer inspection, however, there is not too much in the expertise of epistemology, because it basically consists only of paradigms which, from the point of view of the holism of the real cognitive situation itself, are nothing more than relatively simplistic interpretations of this situation. However, we do not yet know what another conception of knowledge might look like (which is not surprising given the position of the phenomenon of knowledge in the hierarchy of phenomena according to their complexity). 'Certitude' as a criterion of cognition is thus excluded from the outset, and thus the linear relational model of cognition also appears as what it is, a gross distortion of the real, holistic situation of cognition. The significance of this argumentation with regard to physics is that the linear epistemological model of cognition itself is a major obstacle to an adequate epistemological understanding of physics. This is because it is fixed 'a priori' to an object-related concept of knowledge, and to 'description' as the only mode of ('real') knowledge. The acceptance of the real, holistic epistemological situation is therefore, in my opinion, the condition for an adequate understanding of physics' heuristic access to objects, its transcendental, generalizing epistemological concept, as well as its ontological relevance and dimension. (shrink)

The Manifesto develops further the Critical Theory of Religion intrinsic to the Critical Theory of Society of the Frankfurt School into a new paradigm of the Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy and Theology of Religion.

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work. This work is in the public domain (...) in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

The paper argues against the assumption that citizens of industrialized countries bear responsibility for greenhouse emissions in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. An array of arguments for such a historic responsibility is refuted. The crucial role of the assumption of a liability for bona fide misappropriation in a state of nature (Lockean strict liability) is pointed out.

?06?Rudolf Arnheim, der am 15. Juli 2004 seinen 100. Geburtstag feiert und heute in Ann Arbor lebt, hat sich zeit seines Lebens intensiv mit den Medien künstlerischer Produktion auseinandergesetzt. Seine wichtigsten medientheoretischen Aufsätze, entstanden über einen Zeitraum von 74 Jahren, stellen eine maßgebliche Ergänzung seiner Hauptwerke Film als Kunst und Rundfunk als Hörkunst dar und sind hier erstmals vollständig versammelt. Arnheims medientheoretische Überlegungen nehmen dabei in der Regel ihren Ausgang beim einzelnen Medium - bei der Photographie, dem Rundfunk und (...) insbesondere beim Film - und belegen in eindrucksvoller Weise seine produktive Auseinandersetzung mit konstruktiven formästhetischen Fragen.?15? Rudolf Arnheim, der am 15. Juli 2004 seinen 100. Geburtstag feiert und heute in Ann Arbor lebt, hat sich zeit seines Lebens intensiv mit den Medien künstlerischer Produktion auseinandergesetzt. Seine wichtigsten medientheoretischen Aufsätze, entstanden über einen Zeitraum von 74 Jahren, stellen eine maßgebliche Ergänzung seiner Hauptwerke Film als Kunst und Rundfunk als Hörkunst dar und sind hier erstmals vollständig versammelt. Arnheims medientheoretische überlegungen nehmen dabei in der Regel ihren Ausgang beim einzelnen Medium - bei der Photographie, dem Rundfunk und insbesondere beim Film - und belegen in eindrucksvoller Weise seine produktive Auseinandersetzung mit konstruktiven formästhetischen Fragen.?01?Arnheim, RudolfRudolf Arnheim war mehr als nur ein Zeitzeuge des vergangenen Jahrhunderts, er war einer der herausragenden Kunst- und Medientheoretiker der Gegenwart. Schon zu Beginn des vergangenen Jahrhunderts publizierte er in zahlreichen Zeitschriften, wie etwa der Weltbühne, und legte bereits 1932 mit Film als Kunst ein Buch vor, das bis heute als Klassiker der Filmtheorie gilt. Nach seiner Emigration unterrichtete er an zahlreichen amerikanischen Universitäten und widmete sich dabei insbesondere Fragen der Wahrnehmungs- und Medientheorie. Zu seinem Geburtstag am 15. Juli 2004 erschien mit Die Seele in der Silberschicht ein Band, der seine wichtigsten medientheoretische Aufsätze, die über einen Zeitraum von 74 Jahren entstanden sind, versammelt und eine maßgebliche Ergänzung seiner Hauptwerke Film als Kunst und Rundfunk als Hörkunst darstellt. Arnheims medientheoretische Überlegungen nehmen dabei meist ihren Ausgang beim einzelnen Medium bei der Photographie, dem Rundfunk und insbesondere beim Film und belegen in eindrucksvoller Weise seine produktive Auseinandersetzung mit konstruktiven formästhetischen Fragen. Am 9. Juni 2007 ist Rudolf Arnheim im Alter von 102 Jahren verstorben. (shrink)

The theory of ideas.--Outlines of practical philosophy.--The philosophy of Fries in its relation to theology. (De Wette, Tholuck).

3 lectures, Dornach, May 1920 (CW 74) Steiner begins these three lectures by depicting the background of early Christian thought, from which scholastic philosophers arose. He focuses on the "unanswered question" of the scholastic movement: How can human thinking be made Christlike and develop toward a vision of the spiritual world? A study of subsequent European thought, especially that of Kant, leads to the possibility of deepening into spiritual perception the scientific thinking that arose from scholasticism. Steiner explains that, since (...) the beginning of the twentieth century, this is true Christianity. CONTENTS The Hymn of Boethius Introduction Prayer of Thomas Aquinas Three Lectures on the Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas 1. Thomas and Augustine 2. The Essence of Thomism 3. Thomism in the Present Day Epilogue Appendices This volume is a translation of Die Philosophie Des Thomas von Aquino (GA 74). (shrink)

Excerpt from Worterbuch der Philosophischen Begriffe, Vol. 1: Historisch-Quellenmassig Bearbeitet; A bis N Die Anordnung des Materials ist so getroffen worden, dafs in erster Linie die Ubersichtlichkeit des Stoffes gesichert wurde. Die logisch - systematische und die chronologisch-genetische Dispositions weise wurden nach Moglichkeit miteinander combiniert. Auf allzu subtile Einteilungen kam es hier, in einem Worterbuchs, nicht so sehr an, verfuhrt doch eine solche, die gewohnlich durch allerhand Voraussetzungen und Annahmen bedingt ist, selbst also den Charakter einer Theorie, einer Hypothese hat, (...) zur Subjectiviernug der Darstellung, wahrend doch dem Herausgeber au moglichster Objectivitat lag; diese ist denn auch von der Kritik anerkannt werden. Den eigenen Standpunkt, den der Fachmann als einen in so mancher Beziehung selbstandigen erkennen wird, hat der Herausgeber in den an der Spitze der einzelnen Artikel stehenden Begriffs. Bestimmungen zwar kurz, pracis, aber, wie er glaubt, nicht nu wissenschaftlich, entwickelt. About the Publisher Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works.". (shrink)

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work. This work is in the public domain (...) in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work was reproduced from the original artifact, and remains as true to the original work as possible. Therefore, you will see the original copyright references, library stamps (as most of these works have been housed in our most important libraries around the world), and other notations in the work. This work is in the public domain (...) in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. As a reproduction of a historical artifact, this work may contain missing or blurred pages, poor pictures, errant marks, etc. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant. (shrink)

The present paper offers a critical edition of diverse book epigrams written in the so-called "epigraphische Auszeichnungsmajuskel", a distinctive script imitating the character of monumental inscriptions on stone. The paper offers a brief comment on the transmission and the text of the epigrams which reflect different levels of Byzantine book culture, from unique luxury products for wealthy patrons to modest volumes for a broader public. Attention is called to the fact that names mentioned in book epigrams need not be taken (...) at their face value as pertaining to either scribe or illuminator of the manuscript but should rather be examined along with other witnesses of the same text. (shrink)

Wenn man die besonders in den letzten fiinf Jahrhunderten sehr dynami­ sche, sich noch immer beschleunigende Entwicklung Europas bzw. der westlichen Welt und die kulturkritische Diskussion der Gegenwart verste­ hen will, ist es notwendig, auch die Rolle zu erkennen, die dabei das Ver­ haltnis zum Phanomen Zeit spielt. In vielen Einzelbeobachtungen ist dies gespiirt und nachgewiesen worden, aber bisher fehlt eine zusammenfas­ sende Darstellung, wie sie hier versucht wird. Der Kulturbereich, den man mit dem konstituierenden Vorspiel im Orient in geschichtlicher (...) Folge als Abendland, Europa oder moderne westliche Welt bezeichnet, unterscheidet sich von anderen Kulturen durch ein besonders sensibles, scharf ausgepragtes und in standiger Auseinan­ dersetzung mit Ideen und Realitaten herausgefordertes und gepragtes, sich wandelndes ZeitbewuBtsein. In keiner anderen Kultur hatte und hat Zeit eine vergleichbar wesentliche Bedeutung. Das europaische ZeitbewuBtsein wurde von friihen Lebenserfahrungen im Vorderen Orient, von religiosen Vorstellungen insbesondere des Juden­ turns und Christentums, von zunehmender Zeitgliederung durch Uhren und Kalender, von der Entwicklung der Naturwissenschaften, von den Be­ diirfnissen einer stadtischen und arbeitsteiligen Gesellschaft, von den Ei­ gengesetzlichkeiten der Wirtschaft und von der Entfaltung des Selbstbe­ wuBtseins der Bildungseliten sowie spater immer groBerer Schichten der Gesellschaft geformt und aktiviert. Das jeweilige ZeitbewuBtsein einer Epoche griindet also nicht in sich selbst, sondern ist einerseits Ausdruck iibernommener Tradition, andererseits auch eigener Lebenserfahrungen, religioser Erlebnisse, wissenschaftlicher Welterkundung, des Selbstbe­ wuBtseins innerhalb der Geschichte und der jeweiligen Art, den Sinn des Lebens zu deuten. (shrink)

This paper was presented at the First Conference of the ISSEI ‘Turning Points in History’, 26–30 September 1988. It belongs to Theme 1, ‘Comparative History of European Revolutions’.

Artikelen over een groot aantal onderwerpen op filosofisch-economisch gebied, verschenen tussen 1969 en 1981 in verschillende tijdschriften en kranten, van de Duitse marxistisch georiënteerde filosoof.