To determine what the speaker in a cooperative dialog meant with his assertion, on top of what he explicitly said, it is crucial that we assume that the assertion he gave was optimal. In determining optimal assertions we assume that dialogs are embedded in decision problems (van Rooij 2003) and use backwards induction for calculating them (Benz 2006). In this paper, we show that in terms of our framework we can account for several types of implicatures in a uniform way, (...) suggesting that there is no need for an independent linguistic theory of generalized implicatures. In the final section, we show how we can embed our theory in the framework of signaling games, and how it relates with other game theoretic analyses of implicatures. (shrink)

Two classes of account have been proposed to explain the memory processes subserving the processing of reflexive-antecedent dependencies. Structure-based accounts assume that the retrieval of the antecedent is guided by syntactic tree-configurational information without considering other kinds of information such as gender marking in the case of English reflexives. By contrast, unconstrained cue-based retrieval assumes that all available information is used for retrieving the antecedent. Similarity-based interference effects from structurally illicit distractors which match a non-structural retrieval cue have been interpreted (...) as evidence favoring the unconstrained cue-based retrieval account since cue-based retrieval interference from structurally illicit distractors is incompatible with the structure-based account. However, it has been argued that the observed effects do not necessarily reflect interference occurring at the moment of retrieval but might equally well be accounted for by interference occurring already at the stage of encoding or maintaining the antecedent in memory, in which case they cannot be taken as evidence against the structure-based account. We present three experiments (self-paced reading and eye-tracking) on German reflexives and Swedish reflexive and pronominal possessives in which we pit the predictions of encoding interference and cue-based retrieval interference against each other. We could not find any indication that encoding interference affects the processing ease of the reflexive-antecedent dependency formation. Thus, there is no evidence that encoding interference might be the explanation for the interference effects observed in previous work. We therefore conclude that invoking encoding interference may not be a plausible way to reconcile interference effects with a structure-based account of reflexive processing. (shrink)

In this paper we are going to show that error coping strategies play an essential role in linguistic pragmatics. We study the effect of noisy speaker strategies within a framework of signalling games with feedback loop. We distinguish between cases in which errors occur in message selection and cases in which they occur in signal selection. The first type of errors affects the content of an utterance, and the second type its linguistic expression. The general communication model is inspired by (...) the Shannon–Weaver communication model. We test the model by a number of benchmark examples, including examples of relevance implicatures, quantity implicatures, and presupposition accommodation. (shrink)

Previous research on scalar implicature has primarily relied on meta-linguistic judgment tasks and found varying rates of such inferences depending on the nature of the task and contextual manipulations. This paper introduces a novel interactive paradigm involving both a production and a comprehension side and a precise conversational goal. The main research question is what is reliably communicated by some in this communicative setting, both when the quantifier occurs in unembedded and embedded positions. Our new paradigm involves an action-based task (...) from which participants’ interpretation of utterances can be inferred. It incorporates a game-theoretic design, thereby including a precise model to predict participants’ behaviour in the experimental context. Our study shows that embedded and unembedded implicatures are reliably communicated by some. We propose two cognitive principles that describe what can be left unsaid. In our experimental context, a production strategy based on these principles is more efficient than a strategy based on literal descriptions. (shrink)

To determine what the speaker in a cooperative dialog meant with his assertion, on top of what he explicitly said, it is crucial that we assume that the assertion he gave was optimal. In determining optimal assertions we assume that dialogs are embedded in decision problems (van Rooij 2003) and use backwards induction for calculating them (Benz 2006). In this paper, we show that in terms of our framework we can account for several types of implicatures in a uniform way, (...) suggesting that there is no need for an independent linguistic theory of generalized implicatures. In the final section, we show how we can embed our theory in the framework of signaling games, and how it relates with other game theoretic analyses of implicatures. (shrink)

As a scientific discipline and profession, law has been for centuries at the heart of social and political power of many Western societies. Professors of law, as influential representatives of the profession, are important powerbrokers between academia, politics and the corporate world. Their influence is based on scientific reputation, institutional mandates inside and outside academia or privileged network connections with people in powerful positions. In this study, based on a full sample of all Swiss law professors in the years 1957, (...) 1980 and 2000, we contrast two theories of the distribution of power among law professors: Bourdieu’s thesis on the trade-off between scientific reputation and -academic institutional power vs. the thesis of an opposition between a group of established incumbents and socio-demographically marginal challengers who try to gain access to the profession. We show that among Swiss law professors the endowment with scientific capital is not opposed to the possession of institutional power within academia. Our findings reveal rather an opposition between a challenging group of professors devoid of resources and an incumbent fraction with a high amount of scientific, institutional and social capital alike. In the conclusion we discuss a series of explanations of this specific power structure, including the specific status scientific reputation and social capital can have for law professors. (shrink)

The past decade has been marked by a series of global crises, presenting an opportunity to reevaluate the relationship between science and politics. The biological sciences are instrumental in understanding natural phenomena and informing policy decisions. However, scholars argue that current scientific expertise often fails to account for entire populations and long-term impacts, hindering efforts to address issues such as biodiversity loss, global warming, and pandemics. This article explores the structural challenges of integrating an evolutionary perspective, historically opposed to functional (...) determinants of health and disease, into current biological science practices. Using data on Swiss biology professors from 1957, 1980, and 2000, we examine the structural power dynamics that have led to the division between these competing epistemologies, and how this division has influenced resource allocation and career trajectories. Our analysis suggests that this cleavage presents a significant obstacle to achieving fruitful reconciliations, and that increased academicization and internationalization may benefit functional biologists at the expense of evolutionary biologists. While evolutionary biologists have gained symbolic recognition in recent years, this has not translated into valuable expertise in the political domain. (shrink)

I explore how the notion of divine creation could be made understandable in a worldview dominated by empirical science. The crucial question concerns the empirical basis of belief in creation. Astronomical observations have changed our worldview in an exemplary manner. I show by an example from imaginative literature that human beings can perceive stars by means other than astronomical observation. This alternative mode may be described as “participatory perception,” in which a human experiences the world not by objectifying separation as (...) in science, but by personal involvement. I relate such perceptions to “embodied cognitive science,” a topical interdisciplinary field of research in philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience. Embodied cognitions initiate processes that can convey personal experiences of the stars. Such cognitions may involve religious apprehensions and give rise to sophisticated values. It is argued that the knowledge available through astrophysics and interpretation of the universe as divine creation represent two different ways of perceiving the same reality and should thus be seen as mutually complementary. (shrink)

Economics and psychology are both sciences of human behaviour. This paper gives a survey of their interaction. First, the changing relationship between the two sciences is discussed: while economics was once imperialistic, it has become a science inspired by psychological insights. In order to illustrate this, recent developments and evidence for three major areas are presented: bounded rationality, non-selfish behaviour, and the economics of happiness.

We are going to explain partial blocking as the result of diachronic processes based on what we will call associative learning. Especially, we argue that the task posed by partial blocking phenomena is to explain their emergence from unambiguous and fully expressive languages. This contrasts with approaches that presuppose underspecified semantic meanings or ineffability like Bidirectional Optimality Theory (Bi–OT) and some game theoretic explanations. We introduce a formal framework based on learning, speaker’s preferences and pure semantics for describing diachronic strengthening (...) of meaning. Moreover, we show how the diachronic development of systems of semantically co–extensive forms can be described in terms of a complete system of diachronic laws. (shrink)

»Neque quidquam intelligi potest esse sine esse.« On the necessity of being as an epistemological principle in Meister Eckhart and Nicholas of Kues. The paper analyses the plausibility of the reasoning for the rational necessity of being. The decisive point for the question as to why for Meister Eckhart being alone is necessary, unvarying in itself and self-evident is the conviction that nothing can be thought which is distinct from being, outside of being or without being. Eckhart states this basic (...) philosophical insight repeatedly using the how-question: How could something be knowable as being which is not and cannot be? Nicolas Cusanus concurs with Eckhart’s claim that nothingness is absolutely excluded from being and embraces his strategy of argumentation, including the way it is stated. Cusanus adopts the central principle of Eckhart’s thought that being must be absolutely knowable by founding all multiplicity in unity, that is, in the being of unity, taking recourse in this point to the quomodo-question typical for Eckhart. Cusanus claims to have proved philosophically that being is rationally necessary, that it is a comprehensive, ultimate and incontrovertible certainty: Nothing can be truer and more secure than the presupposition of being, which is indispensable for all thinking. (shrink)

While written by a prominent and active scientist, this book is based on personal experience and biblical theology. It doesn't try to derive God s existence from science and it's critical of scientific inferences on the notion of God (Natural Theology). Cosmic fine-tuning and other coincidences are no proof of God, but are amazing, astounding and will never be fully explained. Amazement is the appropriate emotional perception of reality. The objective world is not a matter of course and may well (...) not exist at all; thus reality, at times, is experienced to be very special. Human life, the beauty of nature, the habitability of planet Earth can be considered undeserved gifts. In the light of these gifts, the universe is metaphorically interpreted and existentially believed as a divine Creation. Science cannot create such faith but can foster it. Is God necessary to explain the universe? Is the idea of a Creator excluded by modern science? Why continue speaking of a Creator and to believe (trust and hope) in His continuing creation when God cannot be demonstrated in scientific data? Arnold Benz, a renowned astrophysicist and Christian, insists that human perception reaches further than science and demonstrates this in various examples, personal, biblical, and literary.". (shrink)

This title from the De Gruyter Book Archive has been digitized in order to make it available for academic research. It was originally published under National Socialism and has to be viewed in this historical context. Learn more. >.

1. Die Grundlage des Verständnisses der Reinkarnation, wie sie hier vorliegt, ist nicht die hinduistische Seelenwanderungslehre oder gar die buddhistische Karma-Lehre, sondern die christliche Auffassung und Bewertung des menschlichen Personseins, eine Auffassung, hinter der letzthin der Gedanke vom Menschen als der imago dei, dem Bild Gottes, steht. Deshalb spielt auch die indische Lehre von der Wanderung einer Seele durch Tier- und Menschenleiber so gut wie gar keine Rolle; wichtig erscheint nur die Idee einer wiederholten Inkarnation menschlichen Person-Seins. 2. Die Grundlage (...) des Verständnisses der Reinkarnation, wie sie hier vorliegt, ist nicht die Auffassung der Reinkarnation als eines Fluches oder Verhängnisses, sondern als eines Weges der Vervollkommnung, als einer höheren und vollständigeren Entfaltung der imago dei. 3. Christliches Erbe an dieser Deutung ist auch die Blickrichtung nach vorwärts, nach dem Endziel der Vollkommenheit hin, und nicht die Blickrichtung nach rückwärts, der lähmende Blick auf den Kreislauf der Geburten. Dementsprechend ist diese Idee der Reinkamation verbunden mit dem Gedanken der aktiven Entwicklung der menschlichen Persönlichkeit. Die Vollendung und Vervollkommnung des Menschen erscheint nicht als ein überirdisches Gnadengeschenk, das dem Menschen als ein Fremdes übergestülpt wird, sondern als das Ergebnis einer Reifung auf dem Weg des Leidens, der Erfahrung, der Überwindung, auf dem Weg einer immer neuen Erprobung der menschlichen Freiheit. 4. In dieser Auffassung ist ohne Zweifel ein Protest gegen den Mechanismus der Prädestinationslehre, die die Erreichung des Zieles der menschlichen Persönlichkeit völlig unabhängig von dem Verhalten dieser Persönlichkeit selber macht und den Menschen lediglich als das Objekt eines göttlichen Ratschlusses versteht, der sich über die Bemühungen dieses Objekts selbst vollständig hinwegsetzt; ebenso maßgeblich ist der Protest gegen die Lehre von der ewigen Verdammnis, die letzthin den Teufel zum eigentlichen Gewinner der Heilsgeschichte macht. 5. Das Grundanliegen der so verstandenen Reinkarnationslehre ist die Bemühung um eine tiefere Einsicht in das Woher und Wohin des Menschen und in die Kontinuität innerhalb des menschlichen Personseins und seiner Entwicklung vor der Geburt und nach dem Tode. Diese Bemühung setzt gerade an den Punkten ein, an denen die dogmatische christliche Auffassung von den letzten Dingen viele Fragen offen läßt. Ich erwähne nur zwei dieser Punkte: a) Die Veränderung des Geschichtsbildes. Die christliche Endzeiterwartung ist in der ältesten Kirche bestimmt durch die Naherwartung des Endes, durch die Erwartung, daß das Kommen des Menschensohnes, die allgemeine Auferstehung der Toten, das Gericht, der Anbruch des Gottesreiches unmittelbar bevorstehen. Angesichts einer solchen Naherwartung kann natürlich ein solcher Gedanke wie die Idee der Reinkarnation gar nicht aufkommen. Die Verzögerung der Parousie, die Tatsache, daß die Erfüllung der Endzeiterwartungen inzwischen fast zweitausend Jahre auf sich warten läßt, hat eine ganz neue Problematik auch für die Beurteilung der Entwicklung des Menschen nach dem Tode mit sich gebracht. Die römisch-katholische Kirche hat die Lehre vom Fegefeuer entwickelt und dadurch dem Sünder die Chance offengelassen, auch nach dem Tod seinen Heilsstand zu verbessern. Die Reformation hat diese Lehre abgelehnt, hat aber ihrerseits nichts getan, um die Lehre von den letzten Dingen im Hinblick auf unser verändertes Geschichtsbewußtsein weiterzuentwickeln. Nie wurde so viel von Eschatologie gesprochen wie heute, und nie wurde die Frage nach den letzten Dingen vom Standpunkt unseres heutigen Geschichtsbewußtseins her so wenig konkret durchdacht. b) Die altchristliche Endzeiterwartung ist ganz geozentrisch orientiert. Unsere Erde erscheint als Hauptgegenstand des göttlichen Heilswillens, als der eigentliche zentrale Ort der Heilsgeschichte; die Schöpfung und Erlösung des Menschen dieser Erde erscheinen als das zentrale Anliegen des göttlichen Schöpfungs- und Heilswillens. Das neue Weltbild aber beruht auf der Erkenntnis einer Pluralität von Welten. Die Reinkarnationslehre, von der wir hier sprachen, ist ein Versuch, die innere Einheit dieses größeren, aus einer Pluralität von Welten bestehenden Universums vom Menschen, d. h. von der Reinkarnation her, zu verstehen. 6. Auch als Theologen sollten wir zugeben, daß im Hinblick auf unser heutiges Geschichtsbewußtsein und auf unser heutiges kosmisches Bewußtsein zwar nicht die Lösung, die durch die Reinkarnationslehre gegeben ist, aber das Anliegen selbst berechtigt ist. Eine Neubesinnung auf ein christliches Verständnis der letzten Dinge wird sich einer Beschäftigung mit diesem Anliegen nicht entziehen können. (shrink)